Charles I of Spain

From Hispanopedia
Charles I of Spain and V of the Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman Emperor, King of Spain, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia, Duke of Burgundy, Sovereign of the Netherlands and Archduke of Austria
Portrait of Charles V Seated, by Titian (c. 1548). Oil on canvas, 205 x 122 cm. Alte Pinakothek, Munich.
King of Spain
ReignMarch 14, 1516[lower-alpha 1]–January 16, 1556
PredecessorJoanna I of Castile
Ferdinand II of Aragon
SuccessorPhilip II
RegentJoanna I (until 1555)
Holy Roman Emperor
ReignOctober 26, 1520[1]–February 24, 1558[2][3]
PredecessorMaximilian I
SuccessorFerdinand I
Titular Duke of Burgundy
ReignOctober 17, 1506–October 25, 1555
PredecessorPhilip IV
SuccessorPhilip V
King of Naples
ReignMarch 14, 1516[lower-alpha 1]–July 24, 1554
PredecessorFerdinand II
SuccessorPhilip I
King of Sicily and Sardinia
ReignMarch 14, 1516[lower-alpha 1]–January 16, 1556
PredecessorFerdinand II
SuccessorPhilip I
BornFebruary 24, 1500
Ghent, Flanders, Holy Roman Empire
DiedSeptember 21, 1558 (aged 58)
Cuacos de Yuste, Extremadura (Crown of Castile)
Burial
Royal Crypt of the Monastery of El Escorial
SpouseIsabella of Portugal (1526–1539)
IssueSee Marriage and children
HouseAustria
FatherPhilip I of Castile
MotherJoanna I of Castile
ReligionCatholic
SignatureCharles I of Spain and V of the Holy Roman Empire's signature
StyleSacred Caesarean Catholic Royal Majesty[4][5]
MottoPlus Ultra[lower-alpha 2]

Charles I of Spain and V of the Holy Roman Empire, called "the Caesar"[lower-alpha 3] (Ghent, February 24, 1500 – Cuacos de Yuste, September 21, 1558), reigned together with his mother, Joanna I of Castile—the latter only nominally and until 1555—in all the Hispanic kingdoms and territories under the name Charles I from 1516[lower-alpha 1] until 1556, thus uniting for the first time in a single person the Crowns of Castile—the Kingdom of Navarre included—and Aragon. He was Holy Roman Emperor as Charles V from 1520 to 1558.

He was the son of Joanna I of Castile and Philip I the Handsome, and grandson on his father's side of Maximilian I of Habsburg and Mary of Burgundy, from whom he inherited the Burgundian patrimony, the Austrian territories and the right to the imperial throne, and on his mother's side of the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, from whom he inherited Castile, Navarre, the Indies, Naples, Sicily and Aragon.

Biography

The young prince

The birth of Charles of Habsburg took place during a ball at the Prince's House palace (Prinsenhof) in Ghent, Flanders, when the pregnant Archduchess Doña Juana began to feel strong pains in her belly. Believing they were due to poor digestion, she went to the privy and there, without anyone's help, gave birth to her first son at 3:30 in the early morning of Tuesday, February 24, 1500. She wanted to name him Juan in memory of her deceased brother, but he was finally baptized Charles at his father's wish and in memory of his great-grandfather, Charles the Bold, who died at the Battle of Nancy in 1477.[6] The baptism, held on March 7, was officiated by the Bishop of Tournai, Pierre Quick, in the Cathedral of Saint Bavo. In attendance as godmothers were Margaret of Austria, wife of the deceased Prince John, and Margaret of York, wife of Charles the Bold, and as godfathers Charles de Croÿ, Prince of Chimay, and the Lord of Vergás.[7]

Portrait of the then Prince Charles, the future emperor, with his paternal family (by Bernhard Strigel, Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum). Alongside the portraits appear inscriptions identifying them as members of the family of Jesus. Thus, Maximilian is Cleophas, blood brother of Saint Joseph, and Charles is "SIMON ZELOTES CON/SOBRINVS. DNI. NRI".

Before he turned one year old, Philip named Charles Duke of Luxembourg and Knight of the Burgundian Order of the Golden Fleece. On November 16, 1501, Philip and Joanna left for Spain to be sworn in the Cortes as successors of the Catholic Monarchs and left Charles in the care of Margaret of York. During their passage through France, Philip met with King Louis XII and agreed to the marriage between the latter's daughter, Claude, and Charles, an agreement that was renewed with the signing of the Treaty of Blois years later.[8] After Philip's return to Flanders, and owing to the advanced age of Margaret of York, he left Charles in the care of the Lady of Ravenstein, Anne of Burgundy; he also named Charles's godfather, Charles de Croÿ, gentleman of the chamber to Charles, and entrusted his education to Burgundian teachers who would teach him the history of the duchy. For his part, over in Castile, Ferdinand the Catholic, aware that Charles might one day occupy his throne, sent the humanist Luis Cabeza de Vaca to Flanders to teach him Castilian and Spanish customs, although when the Prince arrived in Spain years later he still had not mastered this language.[7][9]

At the beginning of 1506 Philip and Joanna again left for Spain to claim the crown of Castile after the death of Isabella the Catholic, but the joint reign lasted only a short time, since Philip died prematurely in September. Ferdinand, having considered that his daughter was prey to madness, ordered her to be confined in a convent in Tordesillas and made himself regent. Because Charles was a minor, his grandfather Maximilian I of Habsburg assumed the regency of the Netherlands, although shortly afterward he ceded the post to his daughter Margaret of Austria, together with the guardianship of Charles and his siblings. The young prince's entire education took place in Flanders and was steeped in Flemish culture. In 1509 the Emperor arranged for William de Croÿ, Lord of Chièvres, to replace his cousin Charles de Croÿ as the prince's gentleman of the chamber, and Adrian of Utrecht, dean of the University of Leuven and future pope Adrian VI, was named his tutor.[7][10]

On January 5, 1515, William de Croÿ obtained from the Emperor a declaration of Charles's majority; immediately afterward, the States General named the young prince Lord of the Netherlands, ending here the regency of his aunt Margaret. Even so, lacking his own will to govern, the young sovereign would then delegate power to the Lord of Chièvres. That same year, Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht traveled to Aragon to ensure that Ferdinand the Catholic would not take the inheritance of Castile and Aragon away from Charles in favor of his brother Ferdinand I of Habsburg, who had been raised alongside him and was his favorite grandson. Although he committed himself to naming Charles as successor, the King's counselors had to convince him shortly before his death not to designate Ferdinand.[10]

Inheritance and patrimony

Titles

Don Charles, by the grace of God King of the Romans, Emperor ever Augustus.

Doña Joanna his mother and the same Don Charles, by the same grace Kings of Castile, of León, of Aragon, of the Two Sicilies, of Jerusalem, of Navarre, of Granada, of Toledo, of Valencia, of Galicia, of the Majorcas, of Seville, of Sardinia, of Córdoba, of Corsica, of Murcia, of Jaén, of the Algarves, of Algeciras, of Gibraltar, of the Canary Islands, of the Indies, islands and mainland of the Ocean Sea,

Counts of Barcelona,

Lords of Biscay and of Molina,

Dukes of Athens and of Neopatria,

Counts of Roussillon and of Cerdanya,

Marquis of Oristano and of Goceano,

Archdukes of Austria,

Dukes of Burgundy of Brabant.

— Pragmatic or Edict of the Emperor against the comuneros issued at Worms (February 1521).

King of Spain

Succession of Ferdinand the Catholic

Portrait of the young Charles I of Spain, after 1515, by Bernard van Orley.

On January 22, 1516, Prince Charles's grandfather, Ferdinand II of Aragon, drew up his last will. In it, he named him governor and administrator of the Kingdoms of Castile and León, in the name of Queen Joanna I, incapacitated by her illness. As regards the Crown of Aragon, King Ferdinand left all his states to his daughter Joanna, naming, in this case as well, Charles as governor general in his mother's name. Until Charles arrived, Cardinal Cisneros would govern in Castile and Archbishop Alonso de Aragón in Aragon.

On January 23 King Ferdinand died in Madrigalejo (present-day Extremadura). From then on, Charles began to consider taking the title of King, advised by his Flemish counselors. This decision was not well regarded in the Iberian Peninsula. The Council of Castile sent him a letter on March 4 asking him to respect his mother's titles, since "that would be to take from the parent, while alive, the honor to give it to the son". But ten days later the funeral honors for King Ferdinand ended with cries of:

Long live the Catholic Kings Doña Juana and Don Carlos her son. Long live the King, long live the King, long live the King

On March 21, Charles sent a letter to Castile informing it of his decision to title himself King. After lengthy deliberations by the Council, on April 3 Cardinal Cisneros communicated Charles's decision to the kingdom. On the 13th of the same month the new royal intitulation was announced:

Doña Juana and Don Carlos her son, Queen and King of Castile, of León, of Aragon, of the Two Sicilies, of Jerusalem, of Navarre, of Granada, of Toledo, of Valencia, of Galicia, of Majorca, of Seville, of Sardinia, of Córdoba, of Corsica, of Murcia, of Jaén, of the Algarves, of Algeciras, of Gibraltar, of the Canary Islands, of the Islands, Indies and Mainland of the Ocean Sea, Counts of Barcelona, Lords of Biscay and of Molina, Dukes of Athens and Neopatria, Counts of Roussillon and of Cerdanya, Marquises of Oristano and of Goceano, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy and of Brabant, Counts of Flanders, of Tyrol, etc.

In May, the three estates of the Kingdom of Navarre, assembled at the request of the Viceroy Antonio Manrique de Lara, swore fealty to Charles as their King and natural lord.

Meanwhile, in the Crown of Aragon the situation was chaotic. The Justicia of Aragon prevented Archbishop Alonso de Aragón from governing, arguing that, according to Aragonese laws, the office of governor could only be exercised by the heir to the Throne. The Royal Audiencia of Aragon sided with the Justicia, but ruled that the archbishop could govern as curator of Queen Joanna. But the Justicia did not allow this either, arguing that Joanna was no longer the heir, since when she was sworn as such, it had been stipulated that if the King had a son, the latter would become the heir. And, therefore, since in 1509 Ferdinand had had a son with Germaine of Foix, Joanna's oath was annulled (even though the child had died within a few hours). On May 13, Charles recognized the archbishop's powers as curator of Queen Joanna, but even so, the oath to him was refused. On the other hand, the Diputación of the Kingdom of Aragon recognized Joanna as heir to the Crown, but since because of her illness she could not reign, she had to be removed from government so that her son could reign. Added to all this was the fact that no institution of the Crown of Aragon recognized Charles's title of King until he swore the fueros and liberties of the Kingdoms.

Territories controlled in Europe by Charles I of Spain in 1519. Owing to the concentration of titles in his hands, France came to be in a complicated geopolitical position.
Castile
Aragon
Burgundian possessions
Inheritances of Austrian territories
Holy Roman Empire

In the Kingdom of Naples, the Viceroy Ramón de Cardona received the news of King Ferdinand's death through the Archbishop of Zaragoza,[11] was confirmed as Viceroy by Prince Charles from Brussels on February 11,[12] and had Joanna and Prince Charles proclaimed as monarchs on February 20.[13] As for the Kingdom of Sicily, upon the death of Ferdinand the Catholic, the Viceroy of Sicily, Hugo de Moncada, dissolved a Parliament hostile to a new donative in order to remain in office until the confirmation of the new King Charles, but a significant part refused to dissolve, recognizing not Charles but his mother Joanna as Ferdinand's successor. On March 5, after the obsequies of the late Monarch were held, the uprising took place. They considered that once the King was dead, the Viceroy automatically ceased in office; they raised banners for Queen Joanna and established a regency. A new Parliament entrusted the regency of the kingdom to the Marquis of Geraci, Simone Ventimiglia, and to the Marquis of Licodia, Matteo Santapau, and only the city of Messina remained loyal to the Viceroy and to King Charles.

In view of this situation the Viceroy of Naples, Ramón de Cardona, intervened, obtaining an agreement between the parties for them to travel to Charles's court, while the government of Sicily was left in the charge of Diego del Águila. Finally the new viceroy appointed was Ettore Pignatelli, Count of Monteleone.[14] However, the position of the Crown was weakened, and in July 1517, a conspiracy that sought to change the political situation of the kingdom failed when the assassination of the Viceroy was not carried out, which produced a broader revolt known as the Squarcialupo rebellion to demand order and justice.[15] Finally, the situation was brought under control, and in the Parliament of 1518, Charles was recognized as King of Sicily.[16] Regarding the Kingdom of Sardinia, an extraordinary meeting of the estates recognized the new sovereigns Charles and Joanna,[17] and in June 1518 a delegation of the royal estate at the Cortes of Zaragoza swore fealty to the new Monarch, although it cannot be established whether representatives of the other two estates were with them. In October the King granted powers to his viceroy in Sardinia, Ángel de Vilanova, to convene the Parliament and receive the oath of fealty, thus formalizing the act partially formulated in Zaragoza.[18][19]

In the Netherlands, on February 19, 1516, before the death of Ferdinand the Catholic, William de Croÿ, Lord of Chièvres, requested 400 000 gold florins for the future journey to Spain, which was approved by the States General of the Netherlands, but in exchange Charles had to leave the territory pacified. Thus he agreed to the Treaty of Noyon with Francis I of France, and since the acquisition of the rights over Friesland left an open front with Charles of Egmond, Duke of Guelders,[20] a peace treaty was agreed on September 17, 1517.[21] In June 1517, Charles informed the States General assembled in Ghent that the government in his absence would be in the charge of a Privy Council presided over by his aunt Archduchess Margaret of Austria, with his grandfather Emperor Maximilian as its supervisor in case communication with Spain could not be carried out.[22][23] And in July he named Philibert of Chalon Governor and Lieutenant General in the counties of Burgundy and Charolais.[24]

Charles secured his position as King thanks to his recognition as King by Pope Leo X in the bull Pacificus et aeternum of April 1, 1517,[25] and on September 8, 1517, Charles set out with his fleet from Flushing, at five in the morning, bound for Santander. But a strong storm diverted the ships' course, and in the early morning of Saturday, September 19, 1517, the forty ships that made up the fleet found themselves off the coast of Villaviciosa. When the error in course was discovered, Charles and his counselors deliberated whether to continue the journey by sea or to land right there. The insecurity of the sea route, "because of the changeability of the wind, which can as easily turn bad as good", tipped the decision toward landing, according to Laurent Vital, the Flemish chronicler who was traveling with the King. The next stage of the journey was in Tordesillas, where on November 4, 1517, he very briefly visited his mother, Queen Joanna the Mad, confined there, and where Chièvres obtained from Queen Joanna the act by which she recognized her son Charles to govern in her name,[26][27] thereby giving the appearance of legitimacy to Charles's seizure of power.[28] Once in Valladolid, he received the news of the death of Cardinal Cisneros, which left the government of Castile completely clear for him.

On February 9, 1518, the Cortes of Castile, assembled in Valladolid, swore Charles as King together with his mother Joanna[29] and granted him 600 000 ducats. In addition, the Cortes made a series of petitions to the King, among them:

  • To learn to speak Castilian.
  • An end to appointments of foreigners.
  • A ban on the export of precious metals and horses from Castile.
  • More respectful treatment of his mother Joanna, confined in Tordesillas.
Coat of arms of King Charles I of Spain before he became Holy Roman Emperor.

In Aragon the situation remained complicated. Charles arrived in Zaragoza on May 9. The sessions of the Cortes of Aragon began on May 20 and after long discussions, on July 29 Charles was sworn as King of Aragon. Joanna was recognized as Queen, but because of her incapacity to govern, her titles remained only "nominal". In addition he was given 200 000 pounds.

On February 15, 1519, Charles entered Barcelona, convening the Catalan Cortes the following day. After a speech very similar to the one he gave in Aragon, and the corresponding deliberations, Charles was sworn together with Joanna on April 16. The question of the money the Cortes were to contribute dragged on until early January 1520, when they finally granted him 300 000 pounds.

Meanwhile, Emperor Maximilian I died on January 12, 1519. On June 28, Charles was elected in Frankfurt am Main as King of the Romans, which made him the new sovereign of the Holy Roman Empire, and for that reason he decided to suspend the journey to Valencia in order to go to Germany, having first convened Castilian Cortes in Santiago de Compostela for March 20, 1520. In this way, Charles sent Adrian of Utrecht so that through him they would swear him as King and he could convene Cortes in Valencia,[30] despite the illegality, which caused unrest among the privileged estates; however, owing to the quarrels of the noble (military) and ecclesiastical branches against the Germanías, the Cortes were never held, and in the face of the disturbances, the King sent a document on April 30, 1520, offering to uphold their fueros and privileges.[31] Finally, the King complied with foral legality and before going to the General Cortes of Monzón, convened on June 1, 1520, he passed through Valencia and swore its fueros on May 16 of that year.

After this long process, which lasted four years (not counting the oath in Valencia), Charles became the first Monarch to hold the Crowns of Castile, Aragon and Navarre.

Conflicts in Castile: the Comunidades (1520–1522)

Main article: Revolt of the Comuneros

Charles's arrival in Castile meant the arrival of an inexperienced young man who did not know the customs and language of his kingdom, as a result of which he placed his trust in his Burgundian collaborators who had accompanied him from the Netherlands, for whom he obtained high dignities and access to revenues and riches. This annoyed the Castilians and they made it known to him at the Cortes of Valladolid of 1518, which was ignored by the King. The King immediately went on to Aragon. In the long run, this annoyed the Castilians, since he had stayed considerably less time in Castile, so that when he learned in Barcelona that he had been elected King of the Romans, he convened the Cortes of Santiago and La Coruña to obtain subsidies to pay for his expenses abroad. The cities opposed this, since they did not understand the preference for interests in Germany over Castilian ones and demanded his presence in the kingdom. Finally the grant was accepted and Charles embarked for Germany, naming Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht as Regent.

Discontent spread throughout Castile, and the burning of Medina del Campo spread the focus of the comunero rebellion across Castile. The anti-seigneurial revolts led the nobility to support the Emperor, and the movement gradually lost acceptance in the cities. Finally the comuneros, led by Padilla, Bravo and Maldonado, were defeated at the Battle of Villalar, and the King on his return made organizational changes in the kingdom that became evident above all after the Cortes of Valladolid of 1523. Despite his victory, the comunero movement still persisted in some population centers, with greater or lesser success. The City of Toledo led all that resistance in the figure of María Pacheco.[32]

Conflicts in Aragon: the Germanías (1519–1523)

Main article: Revolt of the Brotherhoods

In the territories of the Levante the movement of the Germanías took place. The artisans of Valencia held the privilege, dating from the reign of Ferdinand the Catholic, of forming militias in case of need to fight against the Barbary fleets. In 1519 Charles I permitted the formation of these militias and they were placed under the command of Joan Llorenç.

In 1520, when an epidemic of plague broke out in Valencia and the nobles abandoned the area, the militias seized power and disobeyed the order of Adrian of Utrecht for their immediate dissolution. Within a few days the movement reached the Balearic Islands, where it lasted until 1523. After the defeat of the comuneros, the army put an end to the conflict of the Germanías.

The War of Navarre

Main article: Conquest of Navarre
Coat of arms of Charles I of Spain on the wall of Viana, with the arms of Navarre in the preferred position in the blazon.

Taking advantage of the War of the Comunidades of Castile, with a partial demilitarization of the Kingdom of Navarre, the third counteroffensive of the Navarrese to recover the kingdom took place in 1521. On this occasion, Henry II of Navarre, with the support of the French King Francis I, achieved the recovery in a short time. However, the humble population remained almost entirely passive, neither showing loyalty to Charles I nor showing support for the legitimists. As for the aristocracy, many had encouraged the uprisings that had facilitated the operation, but the others had sworn loyalty to Charles I. Therefore the Navarrese legitimists depended almost entirely on French military and economic support, which left them in a very fragile strategic situation. Shortly afterward the strategic errors of the French general André de Foix and the rapid recomposition of the Spanish army led to military disaster at the Battle of Noáin.

Since the legitimists lacked solid support among the common people or the elites, the Spanish reconquest of almost all of Navarre was very rapid. Pockets of resistance remained only in border districts such as the Baztan-Bidasoa area, with historic clashes and sieges such as at Maya Castle, at the Battle of Mount Aldabe or at the Siege of the fortress of Fuenterrabía. Finally the diplomatic route, granting a broad amnesty, and the renunciation of Lower Navarre, which he never managed to control militarily, led to the Emperor gaining control of Upper Navarre. However, in the long term the decisive factor was that the kings of France gave up backing Navarrese legitimism as a weapon against Spain.

The organization of the Hispanic Monarchy

With the return of King Charles I to Castile in September 1522, a series of reforms were undertaken to integrate the social elites into the government and administration of the Monarchy,[33] which would be completed by his son King Philip II, constituting the polysynodial system of Councils. The structure of the polysynodial regime of the Councils can be found in the Curia Regis, which in 1385 became the Royal Council, or Council of Castile,[34] with the tasks of advising the King, handling ordinary administrative matters and exercising justice. Because of the increase and diversity of matters to be dealt with, in the time of the Catholic Monarchs the Council had been divided into sections that would become independent Councils:[35] in 1494 the Council of Aragon was instituted, in 1483 the Council of the Inquisition, in 1498 the Council of Orders, and in 1509 the Council of the Crusade, but it would be Charles I who gave the impetus to the system of Councils.[36]

Charles I of Spain portrayed by Titian, 1532–1533.

Once the armed uprising of the comuneros had been subdued and the supremacy of royal power secured, the Grand Chancellor Gattinara proposed to Charles I a Secret Council of State that would have supremacy over the other Councils and would be the regulating and supervisory axis of overall policy, of which he himself would be President;[37] to that end he undertook in 1522 the rationalization of the Spanish administration with the reform of the existing Councils and the creation of the Council of Finance in 1523, but the King did not want to depend on a single minister and the project of centralizing in a single Council was rejected,[38] so that the influence of the Grand Chancellor, which after all was an office of Burgundian origin,[39] was gradually eclipsed by Francisco de los Cobos, and consequently he was critical of the collegiate and fragmented administrative planning[40] that was carried out in those years of 1523–1529. In 1524 the Council of the Indies was constituted and in 1526 the Council of State, not as Gattinara had conceived it but as a privy council of the Monarch, which is why it had neither a president nor a fixed seat in Charles's time. The other councils were established in Valladolid, which became the administrative capital until 1561.[41]

The Councils were made up of persons chosen personally by the King (following a series of unwritten rules when choosing them) who, under the presidency of the King himself or of some representative of his (most of the time), discussed some matter. The King always had the last word, but it is not impossible to understand the power they accumulated: first, because the Council was the place where the King gauged the positions of various noble, ecclesiastical or courtly factions. Second, because in periods when the Monarch was not able (illness, war, etc.), they were the true rulers in their area of action. Third, because, at that time, legislative, executive and judicial power were not strictly separated, so that the Councils became a kind of Courts of Appeal; fourth, because certain Councils combined worldly and spiritual tasks, so that they usually held the keys to social prestige (the Council of Orders, to name the clearest case), to important economic revenues (Council of the Crusade) or to political leverage (Council of the Inquisition).

In this order the important work of the secretaries stands out. Apart from the Chancellery, which disappeared with Gattinara's death in 1530, the King dispatched business with his secretaries, who ordinarily held the secretaryships of the Councils, since after all the secretaries were in charge of conveying the deliberations of the Councils to the King and of conveying the King's decisions and resolutions to the members of the Council, which avoided paralysis in government, allowing the system to function.[42] Nevertheless, their power went beyond this, for they became the true managers of the Royal will: on their transcriptions depended the accuracy with which the Monarch perceived the statements of the members of the Councils; they sped up or delayed the delivery of deliberations to the Monarch, controlled ordinary correspondence and made decisions by preparing the documents for signature, and trafficked in the privileged information they had and in their capacity for access to the Monarch.[43]

His reign in America

Main articles: Conquest of Mexico, Conquest of Peru, Conquest of Colombia, Conquest of Venezuela, and Conquest of Guatemala

During the reign of Charles I, the Crown of Castile expanded its territories over a large part of America:

By means of the Capitulation of Madrid of 1528, King Charles temporarily leased the Province of Venezuela to the German Welser family of Augsburg, which led to the creation of Klein-Venedig, one of the German governorates in America.

On August 24, 1534, Diego García de Moguer traveled on a second expedition toward the Río de la Plata, with the caravel Concepción; he passed through Santiago Island in Cape Verde, then to Brazil, where he descended the estuary of the Uruguay and Paraná rivers and founded the first settlement of the city of Santa María del Buen Aire. Later Pedro de Mendoza carried out the founding of Buenos Aires on the right bank of the Río de la Plata, its settlers being exterminated by the natives. Shortly afterward Juan de Salazar and Gonzalo de Mendoza founded Asunción, which would become the driving center of the conquest of the River Plate basin, and Pedro de Valdivia founded Santiago de Chile. All this contributed to establishing the first global empire in world history under the reign of his successor, Philip II, where it was said that "the sun never set".

Most expeditions were private enterprises, carried out with the permission of Charles V, but always declaring the sovereignty of the Spanish Crown over all the conquered territories, although these were considered from 1492 part of the Crown of Castile, since that kingdom had promoted the first expeditions of exploration and conquest of the Indies and Tierra Firme, a term encompassing the Caribbean islands and all of America.

Control over the Church

Between 1508 and 1523 the popes had to grant prerogatives to the Kings of Spain or of the Hispanic Monarchy; but already in 1516 they had granted similar privileges to the King of France (by Pope Leo X) and even earlier to the King of Portugal (by the bull Dudum cupientes of Pope Julius II, in 1506). These prerogatives "extended only to bishoprics and consistorial benefices".[44]

Later, the monarchs obtained the exercise of all or most of the faculties attributed to the Church in the government of the faithful, becoming, in fact and in law, the highest ecclesiastical authority in the territories under their dominion. This is called the royal patronage or real patronato strictu sensu.

The provisions issued by the Pope, by the apostolic nunciature and by the councils had to obtain the pase regio or regium exequator before being published in Spain and its dominions. If they were harmful to the kingdom, the right of retention was applied and their dissemination was prevented.

Subsequently Charles V added to the above the office of Patriarch of the Indies, obtaining control of the entire work of evangelization.[45]

Holy Roman Emperor

Charles I and his wife Isabella of Portugal. Copy by Rubens of a lost painting by Titian.

After the death of his grandfather Maximilian I of Habsburg, Holy Roman Emperor, on January 12, 1519, Charles united in his person the territories coming from the fourfold inheritance of his grandparents: Habsburg (Maximilian I), Burgundian (Mary of Burgundy), Aragonese (Ferdinand the Catholic) and Castilian (Isabella the Catholic), although a few years later he ceded the territories of Austria to his brother Ferdinand.

In competition with the King of France Francis I, which entailed an enormous expense that Charles met by seeking money in Castile and from German bankers such as the Welser and Fugger, on October 23, 1520, he was crowned King of the Romans in Aachen and three days later he was recognized as Emperor-elect of the Holy Roman Empire.[1] These affairs in Germany kept him away from Spain until 1522.

On February 24, 1530, the very day of his birthday, in Bologna, Charles was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement VII, who became an ally of the imperial cause.[46] The Emperor's ideology was the humanist ideal of the Universitas Christiana, the supremacy of imperial authority over all the kings of Christendom and the assumption of the defense of Catholicism. This imperial conception was the work of Spanish minds such as Pedro Ruiz de la Mota, Hugo de Moncada or Alfonso de Valdés.[47] The French King Francis I and the Pope showed their disagreement with these universalist ideals. Hence he was constantly in conflict with both during his reign as emperor.

Against the Ottoman Turks

Emperor Charles V with the baton, by Rubens. Copy of a portrait by Titian.

In 1516, Prince Selim of Algiers asked the corsair Aruj, better known as Barbarossa, for help in throwing off subjection to Castile. Aruj came as a friend, but after attacking Algiers and expelling the Spaniards from the city, he killed Selim and proclaimed himself king.[48] Cardinal Cisneros, Regent of Castile until Charles's arrival in the kingdom, sent a force of 8,000 men under the command of Diego de Vera to reconquer the city, but their lack of military training caused them to be defeated.[49]

In 1517 Aruj seized Tlemcen, a city tributary to the Spanish governor of Oran, the Marquis of Comares Diego Fernández de Córdoba. The following year, the latter defeated and killed the corsair, and his brother Hayreddin proclaimed himself King of Algiers. Upon learning the news, Charles decided to reconquer the city immediately, sending Hugo de Moncada in command of an expedition of 7,500 soldiers. The council of war held on August 17 decided to wait for the help offered by the King of Tlemcen, but a strong storm battered the Spanish fleet seven days later and Hugo de Moncada was forced to withdraw.[50]

In this way, with the help of the German Protestant princes and a good part of the Castilian nobility, Charles came in 1532 to the aid of his brother Ferdinand of Habsburg to defend Vienna from the attack of Suleiman the Magnificent, arriving in the city on September 23 of that year, but Francis I of France, who feared that the Emperor would defeat the Turks and thus concentrate on the war against him, advised the sultan not to attack the imperial army, and the latter ended up withdrawing without offering much battle.[51]

That same year Hayreddin Barbarossa managed to expel the Spaniards from the Peñón of Algiers and in 1533 he allied himself with Suleiman, who named him Admiral of the fleet. The following year the corsair took Tunis and, in the face of this situation, Charles organized two operations of differing fortune. The first was the one known as the Tunis Campaign, in 1535, by which Tunis was wrested from Barbarossa, and the second, the Algiers Campaign, in 1541, which failed because of bad weather.

The wars with France

Main article: Italian Wars (1494-1559)

Charles I waged four wars with Francis I of France, who also aspired to the imperial crown, and from whom he demanded the return of Burgundy.

  • In the first war (1521–1526), France seized the Milanese and helped Henry II to recover the Kingdom of Navarre, after its conquest in 1512. However, the French Monarch was defeated and taken prisoner, together with the Navarrese Monarch, at the Battle of Pavia (1525). Francis was taken to Madrid, where he signed the Treaty of Madrid (1526), by which he would not again occupy the Milanese nor support the King of Navarre (a pact he renounced months later on the grounds of having signed it under duress) and would hand over Burgundy to Charles, as well as renouncing Flanders and Italy.
  • In the second war (1526–1529) the imperial troops stormed and sacked Rome (Sack of Rome), forcing Pope Clement VII, ally of Francis I—after the League of Cognac—to take refuge in the Castel Sant'Angelo. By means of the Peace of Cambrai, Charles I renounced Burgundy in exchange for Francis I renouncing Italy, Flanders and Artois, as well as handing over the City of Tournai. Crowned by the Pope as Holy Roman Emperor (1530), Charles I continued his struggles against France.
  • The third (1535–1538) was caused by the French invasion of the Duchy of Savoy, an ally of the Habsburg monarchy, with the intention of continuing toward Milan. It ended with the signing of the Truce of Nice owing to the exhaustion of both contenders.
  • The fourth (1542–1544) concluded owing to the resumption of the conflict with the Protestants in Germany. Exhausted, the two monarchs signed the Peace of Crépy, by which Charles I lost territories in northern France—such as Verdun, etc.—and near Flanders; once again France renounced Italy and the Netherlands, with Milan entering into matrimonial policy through an anticipated Spanish-French marriage.

The emergence of Protestantism

The Catholic Monarchy or Hispanic Monarchy of King Charles I was completed when the Monarch was proclaimed Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire under the name of Charles V. The Emperor assumed, among other commitments, that of convening assemblies of the estates called meetings or diets.

Charles V on Horseback in Mühlberg by Titian.

In 1521, at the Diet of Worms, his brother Ferdinand was named Regent of the Empire and raised to the rank of archduke. At the same time the monk Martin Luther, under the protection of the Elector Frederick of Saxony, was declared an outlaw, initiating the religious confrontation of Catholicism aimed at halting the expansion of Lutheranism. In 1523 he ceded the islands of Malta and Gozo, as well as Tripoli, to the Order of Malta. The followers of Luther's doctrine adopted the name "Protestants" insofar as they, gathered as "reformed orders", during the second Diet of Speyer of 1529, protested against the Emperor's decision to reinstate the Edict of Worms, an edict that had been suspended at the preceding Diet of Speyer of 1526. As sovereign, after being invested with the crown of the Empire at the hands of the pontiff in 1530, Charles devoted himself entirely to trying to solve the problems that Lutheranism was creating in Germany and in Europe, in order to safeguard the unity of the Christian faith against the onslaught of the Muslim Turks.

In that same year of 1530, between June 15 and November 19, he convened the Diet of Augsburg, at which Lutherans and Catholics clashed over the so-called Confessions of Augsburg. Melanchthon attended this Diet as Luther's representative. He made concessions, but was intransigent on the marriage of priests, communion under both kinds and the rejection of private masses. Charles confirmed the Edict of Worms of 1521, that is, excommunication for the Lutherans, threatening the restitution of ecclesiastical property. In response, the Lutherans, represented by the so-called "reformed orders", acted by giving life to the Schmalkaldic League in 1531. This coalition, endowed with an army and a common treasury, was also called the "league of the Protestants".

In 1532 the Diet of Regensburg also failed to reach an agreement between Catholics and Protestants. According to the historian Joseph Pérez, Charles V considered the Protestants at all times as heretics and rebels, and if he could not apply much harsher repression it was because the political system of the German Empire prevented him.[52] Recognizing that a reform was necessary and in order to try to resolve the problem, the pontiff Paul III convened the Council of Trent, whose work officially began on December 5, 1545. A Council whose conclusion neither the Emperor nor the Pope who had convened it would see.

Habsburg dominions in Europe in 1547.

After the Protestants' refusal to recognize the Council of Trent, the Emperor began the war in June 1546, once the Peace of Crépy (1545) had been signed with France and a truce reached with the Turks in central Europe. The Catholic armies were composed of an army raised by the pontiff, under the command of Ottavio Farnese, another Austrian one commanded by Ferdinand of Austria and another of soldiers from the Netherlands under the command of the Count of Buren. Maurice of Saxony, who had been skillfully detached from the Schmalkaldic League, also supported the Caesar. In short, the Emperor managed to gather some 40,000 men led by the Duke of Alba, against the 60,000 of the Lutheran troops, although the lack of funds and a confrontation dragging on over time reduced the Emperor's forces to 25,000 men; despite everything, Charles V achieved a resounding victory at the Battle of Mühlberg in 1547; shortly afterward, the German princes withdrew and submitted to the Emperor. From the Diet of Augsburg of 1548 resulted an imperial decree known as the Augsburg Interim, to govern the Church pending the resolutions of the Council. In the Interim Catholic doctrine was respected, but communion under both kinds and the marriage of the clergy were permitted.[53]

Portrait of Emperor Charles V around 1550.

After the imperial victory in the Schmalkaldic War (1546–1547), many Protestant princes were dissatisfied with the religious terms of the Augsburg Interim, imposed after the defeat. In January 1552, led by Maurice of Saxony, many formed an alliance with Henry II of France in the Treaty of Chambord (1552). In exchange for French financial support and assistance, they promised Henry possession of the Three Bishoprics—Metz, Verdun and Toul—as vicar of the Empire. In the ensuing princes' war, Charles had to flee to Carinthia before the advance of Maurice of Saxony, while Henry captured the fortresses of Metz, Verdun and Toul. Faced with the war with France, his brother Ferdinand, as King of the Romans, negotiated peace with the Protestants in the Treaty of Passau (1552), in which the Emperor guaranteed freedom of worship to the Protestants.

Despite his victory, he did not achieve his longed-for wish of unifying Lutheranism with Catholicism politically and socially, so that shortly afterward, in 1555, he was forced to sign the Peace of Augsburg, by means of which the inalienable right of the Germans to adhere to the Catholic confession or to Lutheranism was recognized, bringing to an end, albeit temporarily (fifty years), the long conflict that arose from the Counter-Reformation.

The discouragement that followed the Emperor's failure to contain the Protestant Reformation in the German Empire lay at the root of his abdication (1555) and of the division of his inheritance, separating the German Empire from the rest of the territories, ceding it to his brother Ferdinand and creating two dynastic lines for the House of Austria, the Spanish one and that of Vienna. The Empire would become a mere confederation of territories. The Peace of Augsburg (1555) would be confirmed a hundred years later by the Peace of Westphalia (1648)[52].

Abdication, retirement, death and transfer of his remains

After so many wars and conflicts, Charles entered a phase of reflection: on himself, on life and his experiences and, moreover, on the state of Europe. The great protagonists who, together with him, had shaped the European scene in the first half of the 16th century had died: Henry VIII of England and Francis I of France in 1547, Martin Luther in 1546, Erasmus of Rotterdam ten years earlier and Pope Paul III in 1549.

Bed in which Emperor Charles V died in the Monastery of Yuste, Cáceres.

The balance of his life and of what he had accomplished was not entirely positive, especially in relation to the objectives he had set himself. His dream of a universal Empire under the Habsburgs had failed, as had his objective of reconquering Burgundy. He himself, although proclaiming himself the first and most fervent defender of the Roman Church, had not managed to prevent the establishment of the Lutheran doctrine. His overseas possessions had grown enormously, but without his governors having been able to implant stable administrative structures. But he had consolidated Spanish dominion over Italy, which would be secured after his death with the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559 and would last one hundred and fifty years. Charles was beginning to become aware that Europe was heading toward being governed by new princes, who, in the name of maintaining their own States, did not attempt in the least to alter the political-religious balance within each of them. His conception of the Empire had passed, and Spain was consolidating itself as the hegemonic power.

Banners with the arms of Aragon, of León and of Castile at the obsequies upon the death of Charles I. Jérôme Cock, Funerales de Carlos I, Antwerp, Christophe Plantin, 1559.

In the abdications of Brussels (1555–1556), Charles left the imperial government to his brother Ferdinand (although the electors did not formally accept his renunciation until February 24, 1558)[2][3] and that of Spain and the Indies to his son Philip. He returned to Spain on a voyage by ship from Flanders to Laredo, with the purpose of curing his gout in a district he had been told about for its good climate and its distance from the great cities, the Extremaduran district of La Vera. It took him a month and three weeks to reach Jarandilla de la Vera, where he stayed thanks to the hospitality of the 3rd Count of Oropesa, Fernando Álvarez de Toledo y Figueroa, who lodged him in his castle of Oropesa. There he waited from November 11, 1556, until February 3, 1557, the date on which the works on the palace house he had ordered built next to the Monastery of Yuste were completed. In this peaceful place he remained in retirement for a year and a half, far from the cities and from political life, and accompanied by the order of the Hieronymites, who guided the monarch spiritually until his last days.

In his will he recognized John of Austria as his son, born of the extramarital relationship he had with Barbara Blomberg in 1545. He met him for the first time in one of the rooms of the palace house of the Monastery of Yuste.

Finally, on September 21, 1558, he died of malaria[54] after a month of agony and fevers (to which was added gout, a disease from which he also suffered acutely), caused by the bite of a mosquito coming from the stagnant waters of one of the ponds built by the clock expert and hydrographic engineer Torriani.

Mummy of Emperor Charles V at El Escorial, drawn from life, by Martín Rico, in La Ilustración Española y Americana.

In 1573 King Philip II ordered the transfer of the remains of the late emperor and of the Infanta Eleanor of Austria, Queen of Portugal, to the Monastery of El Escorial, a task carried out by the 4th Count of Oropesa, Juan Álvarez de Toledo y de Monroy. Charles's coffin is in the Royal Crypt of the Monastery of El Escorial, known as the Pantheon of the Kings.

Family

Marriage and children

On March 11, 1526, Charles I married at the Royal Alcázar of Seville his cousin Isabella of Portugal, granddaughter of the Catholic Monarchs and sister of John III of Portugal, who in 1525 had married Charles I's sister, Catherine of Austria. With her he had the following children[55]:

Illegitimate children

Description

The Venetian ambassador Gasparo Contarini gave the following description of Emperor Charles V at twenty-five years of age:

He is of medium stature, but not very large, nor small, white, of a color more pale than ruddy; of body, well proportioned, a most beautiful leg, good arm, the nose a little aquiline, but only a little; the eyes eager, the aspect grave, but not cruel nor severe; nor can any other part of his body be faulted, except the chin and also his whole lower face, which is so wide and so long that it does not seem natural to that body; but it seems false, whence it happens that he cannot, closing his mouth, join the lower teeth with the upper ones; but a space the thickness of a tooth separates them, whence in speaking, especially at the end of a clause, he stammers some word, which for that reason is not understood very well.

Genealogy

Positions held


Predecessor:
Joanna of Aragon 		Prince of Asturias
1506–1516 		Successor:
Philip of Austria
Predecessor:
Philip IV of Burgundy[lower-alpha 4]
Titular Duke of Burgundy[lower-alpha 5]
Duke of Brabant, Limburg, Lothier and Luxembourg.
Count of Artois, Flanders, Hainaut, Namur, Holland and Zeeland.
Lord of Mechelen
Margrave of the Holy Roman Empire
1506–1555[lower-alpha 6] 		Successor:
Philip V of Burgundy[lower-alpha 4]
Count Palatine of Burgundy
Lord of Salins
1506–1556[lower-alpha 7]

[57] [58]

Count of Charolais
1506–1558[lower-alpha 8]
Predecessor:
George the Bearded of Saxony-Meissen
Frisian-Hollandic war: Pier Gerlofs Donia 		Lord of Friesland
1515/1524[lower-alpha 9]–1555[lower-alpha 5]
Predecessor:
Bishop Henry II of Bavaria[lower-alpha 10] 		Lord of the cities, towns and lands of Utrecht and Overijssel
1528–1555[lower-alpha 5]
Predecessor:
Charles of Egmont 		Lord of Groningen (with Drenthe)
1536–1555[lower-alpha 5]
Predecessor:
William V of Cleves 		Duke of Guelders and Count of Zutphen
1543–1555[lower-alpha 5]
Predecessor:
Joanna I
(Ferdinand II of Aragon
Governor of the Kingdom)
King of Castile and León
1516[lower-alpha 1]–1556
(Together with his mother Joanna I: 1516–1555) 		Successor:
Philip II of Spain
Predecessor:
Ferdinand II of Aragon
King of Navarre[lower-alpha 11]
1516[lower-alpha 1]–1556
(Together with his mother Joanna III: 1516–1555)

King of Aragon, Valencia, Majorca, Sicily and Sardinia
Count of Barcelona
1516[lower-alpha 1]–1556
(Together with his mother Joanna I: 1516–1555)
King of Naples
1516[lower-alpha 1]–1554
(Together with his mother Joanna III: 1516–1554)
Predecessor:
Maximilian I 		Archduke of Austria
Duke of Styria, Carniola and Carinthia
Landgrave of Alsace
Prince of Swabia
Count of Tyrol, Habsburg, Gorizia, Ferrette and Kyburg
Margrave of Burgau
Lord of the Windic March and Pordenone
1519–1521
(Together with his brother Ferdinand I: 1519–1521) 		Successor:
Ferdinand I

King of the Romans
1519–1520

Holy Roman Emperor
1520–1558

Filmography

Films

Year Film Director Actor
1948 Locura de amor Juan de Orduña Jorge Mistral
1953 Jeromín Luis Lucia Mingarro Jesús Tordesillas
2001 Juana la Loca Vicente Aranda
2003 Luther Eric Till Torben Liebrecht

Television series

Year Series Director Actor
2007 The Tudors James Flynn Sebastian Armesto
2015–2016 Carlos, Rey Emperador[59] Oriol Ferrer Álvaro Cervantes

See also

Notes and references

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Self-proclaimed (March 14, 1516), later sworn (together with his mother) in the Cortes of Castile (February 9, 1518), and in the various Cortes of Aragon: Aragon (July 29, 1518), Catalonia (April 16, 1519) and Valencia (May 16, 1528 [1])
  2. ↑ Translation from Latin: "Further beyond"; Charles I is the only Spanish monarch to whom the motto Plus Ultra can be considered to belong personally; after him the motto would rather become a symbol of Spain.
  3. ↑ Also "Caesar Charles", "His Caesarean Majesty", "the Traveler" or "the Absent".
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 The ordinal corresponds to the duchy of Burgundy, whose holder was the Grand Master and sovereign head of the Order of the Golden Fleece, and thus it was the most prestigious title among all the territories of the duchy of Burgundy in the 15th century. However, the duchy's own territory had been incorporated into France in 1477.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 With the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 the territories of the 17 provinces of the Netherlands constituted an indivisible political union under the same sovereign.— Thomas & Verdonk 2000, p. 21 — Rousset 1854, p. 430 — Ragon 1843, p. 28.
  6. ↑ On October 25, 1555, Charles I ceded to his son Philip the territories of the pays de par deçà (the Netherlands) (Juste 1855, p. 25) but not those of the pays de par delà (Burgundy)
  7. ↑ The renunciation of the County of Burgundy was on June 10, 1556 (Joseph & Marchal 1836, p. 724)
  8. ↑ Charles I did not renounce the county of Charolais since, had he done so, it would have reverted to the King of France on the basis of the Peace of Cambrai (1529) (de Cadenas y Vicent 2001, pp. 333–338). After his death, his son Philip was recognized as lord of the territory in the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559) Duckett 1853, p. 292
  9. ↑ In 1515, Charles bought the rights over Friesland from Duke George the Bearded of Saxony-Meissen, and named Floris of Egmont stadtholder. A war broke out and Charles was accepted as Lord of Friesland in 1524.
  10. ↑ The territories of the bishopric were ceded by the treaties of Schoonhoven and Gorinchem: Holland under Habsburg Rule, 1506–1566, James D. Tracy
  11. ↑ In 1530 he abandoned Ultrapuertos because of the difficulty of defending it, and it passed into the hands of Henry II of Albret. From then on the Kings of Spain would reign only in Upper Navarre.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 [2] Kutz, Jens Peter, Karl V. (1500-1558) - Kaiserwahl und Kaiseridee, Universität Hannover
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Setton 1984, p. 716
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Dyer 1861, pp. 114–115
  4. ↑ "Carta del cardenal y los del consejo a Carlos V, sobre la situación del reino" (in español). September 12, 1520. Retrieved February 11, 2010.
  5. ↑ "Carta al Emperador, de Gonzalo Díaz de Vargas, alguacil mayor y regidor de la ciudad de los Ángeles, expresando en veinte capítulos las cosas que convienen proveer para el buen gobierno de la Nueva España" (in español). May 20, 1556. Retrieved February 11, 2010.
  6. ↑ Scheuber 2007.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Vaca de Osma 1998
  8. ↑ Erlanger 2000, «El príncipe de antepasados múltiples». sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFErlanger2000 (help)
  9. ↑ Erlanger 2000, «Juana la Loca». sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFErlanger2000 (help)
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 García Herranz, Rafael. "Infancia y juventud de Carlos I" (in español). Archived from the original on July 30, 2007. Retrieved December 30, 2008.
  11. ↑ Planells, Antonio (2012). Ramón de Cardona y la batalla de Ravenna 1512 (in español). Bubok. pp. 287–288. ISBN 9788468604275.
  12. ↑ Planells, Antonio (2012). Ramón de Cardona y la batalla de Ravenna 1512 (in español). Bubok. p. 290. ISBN 9788468604275.
  13. ↑ Istituto italiano per gli studi filosofici, ed. (1991). Corrispondenze diplomatiche veneziane da Napoli: dispacci (in italiano). Vol. 3. Istituto poligrafico e zecca dello Stato, Libreria dello Stato. p. 169.
  14. ↑ Rivero Rodríguez 2011, pp. 53–55.
  15. ↑ Rivero Rodríguez 2011, pp. 55–57.
  16. ↑ Giurato 2003, p. 320.
  17. ↑ Casalis, Goffredo (1856). Dizionario geografico-storico-statistico-commerciale degli stati del Redi Sardegna (in italiano). Vol. XVIII. G. Maspero.
  18. ↑ Manconi, Francesco (2011). Cerdeña: Un reino de la Corona de Aragón bajo los Austria (in español). Universitat de València. p. 65. ISBN 9788437083186.
  19. ↑ Anatra, Bruno (2001). Sardegna e Spagna: città e territorio tra Medioevo ed età moderna (in italiano). Carocci. p. 36. ISBN 9788843017157.
  20. ↑ Koenigsberger, H. G. (2001). Monarchies, States Generals and Parliaments: The Netherlands in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. Cambridge University Press. p. 105. ISBN 9780521803304.
  21. ↑ Marchal, Edmond Léopold Joseph Gustave (1856). Histoire politique du règne de l'empereur Charles-Quint (in français). H. Tarlier. p. 244.
  22. ↑ Marchal, Edmond Léopold Joseph Gustave (1856). Histoire politique du règne de l'empereur Charles-Quint (in français). H. Tarlier. p. 245.
  23. ↑ Juste, Théodore (1858). Charles-Quint et Marguerite d'Autriche: étude sur la minorité, l'émancipation et l'avénement de Charles-Quint à l'empire (in français). Hayez. p. 95.
  24. ↑ Nouvelle biographie nationale. Vol. 9. Académie royale des sciences, des lettres et des beaux-arts de Belgique. 2007. p. 132.
  25. ↑ de Francisco Olmos, José María (2005). La Evolución de la tipología monetaria en Castilla y América durante el siglo XVI (PDF) (in español). IV Jornadas de Documentación en Castilla e Indias durante el siglo XVI. p. 99. ISBN 84-689-3804-1.
  26. ↑ Erlanger, Philippe (2000). Carlos V (in español). Palabra. p. 70. ISBN 9788482393971.
  27. ↑ Pfandl, Ludwig (1999). Juana la Loca, madre del Emperador Carlos V: su vida, su tiempo, su culpa (in español). Palabra. p. 94. ISBN 9788482393735.
  28. ↑ Nieto Soria, José Manuel (2008). Gobernar en tiempos de crisis: las quiebras dinásticas en el ámbito hispánico, 1250-1808 (in español). Sílex Ediciones. p. 41. ISBN 9788477372158.
  29. ↑ Alvar Ezquerra, Alfredo (2011). La España de los Austrias: la actividad política (in español). AKAL. p. 16. ISBN 9788470904615.
  30. ↑ Libro quarto de la Crónica de la ínclita y coronada ciudad de Valencia y de su reino (in español).
  31. ↑ "Cartas de Carlos I". cervantesvirtual (in español).
  32. ↑ Martínez Gil, Fernando (2005). María Pacheco: la mujer valerosa, historia de doña María Pacheco, comunera de Castilla (1497-1531). Volumen 3 de Biografías Castilla-La Mancha. Ciudad Real: Almud / Centro de Estudios de Castilla-La Mancha. ISBN 84-934140-1-8 (in español).
  33. ↑ Floristán Imízcoz 2005, p. 150.
  34. ↑ Alvar Ezquerra 2001, pp. 196–201.
  35. ↑ Fernández Álvarez 1979, p. 142.
  36. ↑ Serrano Mota & García Ruipérez 1999, p. 26.
  37. ↑ Rivero Rodríguez 2005, p. 97.
  38. ↑ Rivero Rodríguez 2005, p. 98.
  39. ↑ Edwards 2005, p. 359.
  40. ↑ Rivero Rodríguez 2005, p. 206.
  41. ↑ Serrano Mota & García Ruipérez 1999, p. 57.
  42. ↑ Edwards 2005, p. 357.
  43. ↑ Edwards 2005, p. 360.
  44. ↑ Q. Aldea (1947:1972).
  45. ↑ La Iglesia de Indias (Artehistoria)
  46. ↑ "Carlos I". Artehistoria (in español). Junta de Castilla y León. Archived from the original on September 27, 2013. Retrieved September 23, 2013.
  47. ↑ Martínez Gil 2002, p. 542.
  48. ↑ Martínez López 2006.
  49. ↑ "Primera expedición contra Argel (1516)" (in español). Archived from the original on May 3, 2008. Retrieved December 24, 2008.
  50. ↑ "Segunda expedición contra Argel (1518)" (in español). Archived from the original on March 7, 2009. Retrieved December 24, 2008.
  51. ↑ Fernández Álvarez 2001, «El peligro turco. Solimán “el Magnífico”».
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 PÉREZ, Jospeh (2000). "Carlos V y la reformas luterana". Carlos V (in español) (3 ed.). Madrid: Temas de Hoy. pp. 66–78. ISBN 84-95146-87-8.
  53. ↑ Molas Ribalta 1993, p. 204.
  54. ↑ de Zulueta 2007.
  55. ↑ Campo, Carlos Robles do (2005). "Los infantes de España en los siglos XVI y XVII" (PDF). Anales de la Real Academia Matritense de Heráldica y Genealogía (in español) (9): 383–414. ISSN 1133-1240. Retrieved 2019-08-21.
  56. ↑ Documentos inéditos para la historia de España (in español). Vol. LXXXVIII. pp. 515–521.
  57. ↑ Gachard 1854, p. 117.
  58. ↑ Henne 1860, p. 286.
  59. ↑ "Carlos, Rey Emperador". RTVE.es (in español).

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