Philippines

Main cities of the Philippines
	2010 Census

Republic of the Philippines
*Republika ng Pilipinas* (Filipino)
Republic of the Philippines (English)
Republic of the Philippines Republika ng Pilipinas (Filipino); Republic of the Philippines (English)
	Flag Coat of arms
	Motto: Maka-Diyos, Maka-Tao, Makakalikasan at Makabansa; (in Filipino: "For God, people, nature, and country")
	Anthem: Lupang Hinirang; (in Tagalog: "Beloved Land"); (original title in Spanish:; "Marcha Nacional Filipina") File:Philippine National Anthem, the Lupang Hinirang, Himno Nacional Filipino Unknown Artist.ogg
Capital	Manila; 14°35′20″N 120°58′17″E / 14.5889°N 120.971489°E
Largest city	Quezon City 14°38′00″N 121°02′00″E / 14.63333°N 121.03333°E
Official languages	Filipino and English
Spoken languages	Regional languages of the Philippines.; Recognized languages: Spanish and Arabic
Demonym	Filipino
Member of	UN, CIN, ASALE, ASEAN (member state), APEC, LU
Government	Unitary presidential republic
• President	Ferdinand Marcos y Romuáldez
• Vice President	Sara Duterte
Independence
• from Spain	1898
• First Republic	1899–1901
• American occupation	1901–1935
• Philippine Commonwealth	1935–1942/1945–1946
• Japanese Occupation	1942–1945
• Independence from the United States	1946
Area
• Total	300,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi) (72nd)
• Water (%)	0.6
• Land borders	0 km
• Coastline	36,289 km
Population
• 2023 estimate	116,434,200 (13th)
• Density	388/km2 (1,004.9/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)	2021 estimate
• Total	US$ 1,000,617 million (29th)
• Per capita	US$ 9,061
GDP (nominal)	2021 estimate
• Total	US$ 402,638 million (34th)
• Per capita	3,646 dollars
Gini (2018)	42.3 medium; Error: Invalid Gini value
HDI (2022)	0.710; high (113th)
Currency	Philippine peso (₱) (PHP)
Time zone	UTC+8:00 (PST)
	Not observed.
Calling code	+63
ISO 3166 code	608 / PHL / PH
Internet TLD	.ph
	Radio call sign prefix: DUA-DZZ / 4DA-4IZ · Aircraft registration: RPC · Vehicle registration: RP

The Philippines—officially the Republic of the Philippines (Tagalog: Republika ng Pilipinas; English: Republic of the Philippines)—is an island country (see archipelago) located in Southeast Asia, in the Pacific Ocean. Its capital is Manila and its most populous city is Quezon City.^[5]^[6] To the north it is separated from the island of Taiwan by the Luzon Strait; to the west lie the West Philippine Sea (or South China Sea) and Vietnam; to the southwest, the island of Borneo; to the south, the Celebes Sea separates it from other islands of Indonesia, and to the east it borders the Philippine Sea.^[7]^[6] Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire and its tropical climate make it prone to earthquakes and typhoons.^[8]^[9]^[5] The country is rich in natural resources and lies in one of the areas with the greatest biodiversity in the world.^[10]^[11]^[12] It is made up of 7,641 islands that are geographically classified into three groups: the island of Luzon, the Visayas group, and the island of Mindanao.^[7]

The Philippines has an estimated population of 109 million inhabitants according to the 2020 census; moreover, it is the 12th most populous country in the world, without counting the 12 million Filipinos who live abroad.^[13] Various ethnic groups and cultures coexist throughout its islands.^[6]^[14] Classified as a newly industrialized country,^[6] its economy continues the steady growth it began after its independence.^[2] The economic reforms implemented at the beginning of the 21st century led the service sector to displace agriculture as the main economic activity, and it now contributes more than half of GDP.^[15] However, the country still faces various challenges in infrastructure: the lack of development in the tourism sector, education, health care and human development.^[16]

In prehistoric times, the Negritos were among the first inhabitants of the archipelago,^[17] followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples who brought with them traditions and customs from Malaysia, India and the Islamic world, while trade introduced some Chinese cultural aspects.^[18]^[19] These peoples established the first island kingdoms, ruled by Datus, Rajas or Sultans.

In 1521, the arrival of the explorer Ferdinand Magellan—a Portuguese in the service of Spain—marked the beginning of an era of Spanish influence and subsequent rule.^[20] Miguel López de Legazpi established the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines in 1565, with the founding of Cebu. In 1571 he founded the city of Manila, which would become the administrative and economic center of the Spanish Empire in Asia and the port of departure of the Manila galleon bound for Acapulco.^[21] The Philippines was governed by the Viceroyalty of New Spain, centered in Mexico, before direct rule was decreed after the independence of Mexico. Three centuries of Spanish influence gave rise to a Hispanic-Asian culture, evident in the art, music, gastronomy and customs of the Philippines, especially its Catholic religion. A Philippine variety of the Spanish language also emerged, which flourished in the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century.

At the end of the 19th century the Philippine Revolution broke out, supported by the United States, followed by the Spanish–American War, which led to the cession of the islands by Spain to the U.S. in 1898. Disagreements between the new Philippine Republic and the U.S. led to the Philippine–American War, which ended with an American victory in 1903. In this way, the United States replaced Spain as the dominant power.^[22]^[23] Except for the period of Japanese occupation, the Americans maintained sovereignty over the islands until the end of World War II in 1946. Since independence, the country has gone through several political crises that served to define the characteristics of a constitutional republic.^[7]^[24]^[25]

The legacy of the different historical periods is reflected in the country's present-day culture, which is a combination of pre-Hispanic indigenous culture with Chinese elements and Hispanic culture, owing to three centuries of Spanish presence. This mestizo culture is present in Filipino gastronomy, music, dances and art. The Hispanic character is most evident in its Catholic religion, in its architectural legacy—especially Spanish-style churches and houses—in many of the country's place names, in given names and surnames^[26] and even in the currency. Finally, the heritage of the United States endures in the English language and in a greater affinity with popular culture.

Etymology

Before acquiring its current name, other names were used to refer to the country, such as "Islas del Poniente" and "San Lázaro", both given by Ferdinand Magellan.^[27]^[28]^[29]^[30]^[31] The word "Filipinas" derives from the name of King Philip II of Spain. During an expedition in 1542, the Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the islands of Leyte and Samar "Felipinas" in honor of the then Prince of Asturias. Eventually, the name was altered and the designation "Las Islas Filipinas" came to refer to all the islands of the archipelago. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times over the course of its history. During the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the "República Filipina". With American colonization and the introduction of the English language, the official name of the country was translated into the new predominant language, Republic of the Philippines. Thus, since its independence, the official name has been the "República de Filipinas", without prefixing the "las" that results from the literal translation of the name.^[32]

History

Prehistory and pre-Hispanic era

A page from the Boxer Codex. On the left, a general of the Rajahnate of Butuan, and on the right, a Princess of the Kingdom of Tondo.

Until recently, the oldest human remains found in the Philippine archipelago were thought to be those of Tabon Man—dating back 22,000 to 24,000 years—,^[33]^[34] but they were superseded by the metatarsal of Callao Man, which according to uranium–thorium dating is 67,000 years old.^[35] The Negritos were among the first inhabitants of the islands, but the date of their arrival is still unknown.^[17] Around 13,000 BC, the Austroasiatic settlement took place, when these peoples roamed the pre-submerged landmass of Sundaland, of which the Philippines is a post-diluvian island remnant, as detected in the genes of the Manobo and Sama peoples.^[36] Simultaneously with this came the westward expansion of the Papuan race, as detected in the genetics of the Blaan and Sangil.^[36] Around 3000 BC, after the polar ice caps melted, Austronesian seafarers, who make up the majority of the current population, migrated southward from Taiwan. From around AD 1 until precolonial times there was also limited immigration from South Asia, as found in the DNA of the Dilaut ethnic group.^[36] By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the archipelago had organized themselves into four types of social groups: hunter-gatherer tribes, warrior societies, small plutocracies and principalities centered on seaports.^[37]

Over the following centuries, trade with maritime peoples and other Asian countries brought with it the influence of Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism. During this time there was no unifying political State encompassing the entire Philippine archipelago. Instead, the islands were divided among several thalassocracies that often fought one another, ruled by various datus, rajas or sultans. Among them were the kingdoms of Manila, Namayan and Tondo; the polities of Cainta, Ma-i, Sandao and Pulilu; the kedatuans of Dapitan and Madja-as; the rajahnates of Cebu, Butuan and Sanmalan; and the sultanates of Lanao, Maguindanao and Sulu.^[18]^[38]^[39]^[40] Some of these societies were part of the Malay empires of Srivijaya, Majapahit and Brunei.^[41]^[42] Islam reached the Philippines through traders and some proselytizers from Malaysia and Indonesia.^[19] Thus, in the 15th century Islam became established in the Sulu Archipelago, and it is recorded that by 1656 it had already reached Mindanao, Luzon and the Visayas.^[43] The Philippine kingdoms were divided and sparsely populated. This was due to the constant wars between kingdoms^[44] and the common frequency of natural disasters.^[45] Some Filipinos (Luzones) traded, settled and fought in South, Southeast and East Asia.^[46]

Spanish rule

In 1521, the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan reached the Philippines and took possession of the islands for Spain.^[20] The conquest began in 1565, when the Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from New Spain and founded the first Spanish settlement in present-day Cebu. In 1571, after dealing with the native royal families during the Tondo Conspiracy and defeating the crew of the Chinese pirate Limahong, the Spaniards established in Manila the capital of the Philippines and of the Spanish East Indies.^[47]^[21]

Spanish rule brought the political unity of the archipelago for the first time in its history. From 1565 to 1821 the Captaincy General of the Philippines was dependent on the Viceroyalty of New Spain, headquartered in Mexico City, and after the Mexican War of Independence it was administered directly from Madrid. From this same Captaincy, Spain controlled others of its territories in the Pacific, among them Guam, Palau, the Caroline Islands and the Mariana Islands.^[48] Between the 16th and 19th centuries, the Manila galleon connected the capital of the Philippines with Acapulco, Mexico, making one or two voyages a year in each direction. Because of the constant wars, which produced scant profits, the Philippines was subsidized by silver extracted from Potosí in Bolivia and Peru. Transpacific trade introduced to the archipelago foods such as corn, tomato, potato, chili and pineapple, all originating from the Americas.^[21] Catholic missionaries converted most of the inhabitants to Christianity and founded schools, universities and hospitals. Although Christianity was official, it allowed degrees of religious syncretism with other religions. The Spaniards also brought the plow, the printing press, the clock and stone construction to the Philippines. A Spanish decree of 1863 established free public education in the country for the first time, which led to high literacy rates.^[49]

During the period of Spanish rule, Hispanic forces and loyal natives fought against several internal rebellions and multiple external attacks by Chinese pirates and by the Dutch and Portuguese; especially noteworthy are the Battles of Cagayan (1582), which pitted the famous Spanish Tercios against Japanese pirates and ronin. In an extension of the fighting of the Seven Years' War, British forces briefly occupied the City of Manila after a hard-fought battle. The British forces found allies such as Diego and Gabriela Silang, who took the opportunity to lead a revolt, until Spanish government was finally restored after the Treaty of Paris of 1763.^[19]^[50]^[51]

Sir John Bowring, Governor General of British Hong Kong and an experienced traveler who had written several books about the different cultures of Asia, described the situation in the Philippines as "admirable" during a visit he made in the 1870s:

The lines separating classes and entire races seemed to me less marked than in the Eastern colonies. I have seen at the same table Spaniards, mestizos (Christian Chinese) and Indios, priests and military men. There is no doubt that having the same religion forms a great bond. And all the more so in the eyes of one who has been observing racial repulsion and differences in many parts of Asia. And for someone (like me) who knows that race is the great divider of society, the admirable contrast and exception to racial discrimination so markedly presented by the people of the Philippines is truly admirable."^[52]

Another foreign witness was the English engineer Frederic H. Sawyer, who had spent most of his life in different parts of Asia and lived in Luzon for fourteen years. His impression was that, as regards integration and racial harmony, the situation in the Philippines was unmatched by any other colonial power:

... Spaniards and natives lived together in great harmony, and I do not know where one could find a colony in which Europeans mixed so much socially with the natives. Not in Java, where a native of standing must dismount to greet the humblest Dutchman. Not in British India, where the Englishwoman has turned the gulf between British and natives into a bottomless pit.^[53]

The Spaniards extended the war against Islam in Europe to the Muslims found in the Philippines, who devoted themselves to raiding the islands as far north as Cebu to capture slaves whom they then sold in Malaysia.^[54] The Spanish–Moro conflict lasted several hundred years. In the last quarter of the 19th century Spain conquered most of Mindanao, and even parts of Sabah and Brunei, during the Castilian War, and the Moro Muslims of the Sultanate of Sulu had no choice but to end up formally recognizing Spanish sovereignty.

In the 19th century, Philippine ports were opened to world trade and changes took place in Philippine society. At the beginning of the century the influence of the South American pro-independence movements began to be felt. On February 1, 1818, Hipólito Bouchard, a privateer of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, arrived aboard the frigate La Argentina. For two months he kept Manila Bay blockaded, also closing the San Bernardino Strait.^[55]

In this period the Philippine economy was the strongest in Asia, and many citizens of all social strata became rich. The influx of peninsular Spanish and Hispanic American settlers^[56] diminished the power of the Church and opened some posts in the government, traditionally held by Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula (peninsulares).

Inspired by Simón Bolívar, there was an uprising led by the short-lived self-proclaimed emperor Andrés Novales, supported by demoted Hispanic American officers of the Spanish-speaking Philippine army.^[57]

The dissatisfaction of the criollos resulted in the revolt of Cavite El Viejo in 1872, one of the precursors of the Philippine Revolution.^[19]^[58]^[59]^[60]^[61]

Philippine Revolution, attempted secession from Spain and the First Philippine Republic

Revolutionary sentiment intensified in 1872, when three priests, Mariano Gómez, José Burgos and Jacinto Zamora—known as Gomburza—were accused of sedition and executed by the imperial authorities.^[58]^[59] This inspired a propaganda movement in Spain organized by Marcelo Hilario del Pilar, José Rizal and Mariano Ponce, who pressed the government to introduce political reforms in the Philippines. Eventually Rizal was arrested and, accused of rebellion, executed on December 30, 1896.^[62]

As the attempts to achieve these reforms met great resistance, in 1892 Andrés Bonifacio founded a secret society called the Katipunan, linked to groups of Freemasons, which sought independence from the Spanish government by means of an armed revolt.^[60] Bonifacio and the Katipunan began the Philippine Revolution in 1896. A faction of the Katipunan, the Magdalo of the province of Cavite, came to challenge Bonifacio's position as leader of the revolution, and Emilio Aguinaldo replaced him.

Spanish–American War, Spanish resistance and the Philippine–American War

In 1898, the Spanish–American War began in Cuba and subsequently spread to the Philippine archipelago, already immersed in revolt. On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo declared Philippine independence from Spain in Kawit, Cavite, and the following year the First Philippine Republic was established.

During that Philippine secessionist revolution, the Siege of Baler took place over 337 days, between July 1, 1898, and June 2, 1899, in which the last Spanish battalion was besieged in the church of the town of Baler, on the island of Luzon.^[63] As of December 1898, with the signing of the Treaty of Paris between Spain and the United States, the war between the two countries (which had signed a ceasefire in August) formally came to an end and Spain ceded sovereignty over the Philippines to the United States, something of which the besieged Spaniards were unaware. Because of this, those besieged at Baler are known as the "last of the Philippines" (últimos de Filipinas).

The survivors of the Baler detachment photographed on September 2, 1899, in the courtyard of the Jaime I barracks in Barcelona (currently a campus of Pompeu Fabra University).

For its part, when Spain lost the war it signed the Treaty of Paris in 1898, in which it ceded control of the islands to the United States for 20 million dollars.^[22] As it became increasingly evident that the United States would not recognize the First Philippine Republic, the Philippine–American War broke out. The Masonic Filipinos felt betrayed by the American and French Republics, founded by Masons,^[64] because of the Philippine–American War^[65] and the Treaty of Paris; however, the two nations made partial amends by granting the Philippines future independence.

The war ended in 1902 with a victory for the United States, and between 200,000 and 1,000,000 people died, most of them from famine and disease. Most modern historians place the death toll of the war between 200,000 and 250,000,^[66]^[67] including a cholera epidemic at the end of the war that killed between 150,000 and 200,000 people.^[68]

American colonization

In 1903, the American authorities counted the population of the Philippines for the census. The survey yielded 70,635,426 people, including 560,138 born abroad.^[69] In 1887, a Spanish census recorded a population of 50,984,727, excluding non-Christians.^[70]

After the Philippine–American War, the archipelago came under total American control, since until then it had been administered as an insular area.

Philippine Commonwealth and Japanese invasion during World War II

In 1935, the Philippines obtained the status of "commonwealth"^[23] under the name of Philippine Commonwealth.

In 1938, President Quezon created the People's Homesite Corporation (People's Homesite Corp.) and bought 15.29 km² of the vast Diliman estate from the Tuason family. The National Assembly of the Philippine Commonwealth passed Commonwealth Act 502, known as the "Quezon City Charter"; it originally proposed the city of Balintawak, but assemblymen Narciso Ramos (father of President Fidel Ramos y Valdez) and Ramón Mitra (father of speaker Ramón Mitra, Jr.) successfully lobbied the assembly to name the city after the incumbent president. President Quezon allowed the bill to lapse into law without his signature on October 12, 1939, thus establishing Quezon City.

In the following decade, plans to regain independence were interrupted by World War II, in particular when the Empire of Japan invaded the country and established a puppet government, the Second Philippine Republic. During the conflict multiple war crimes were committed, such as the Bataan Death March and the Manila massacre, which culminated in the Battle of Manila.^[71] The crimes against the population of Spanish origin, located mainly in the district of Intramuros, and the assaults on the official Spanish premises in the Philippines caused great concern in the government of Francisco Franco. As a consequence, Spain broke off diplomatic relations with Japan on April 12, 1945.^[72] By the time Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1945, more than one million Filipinos had died.^[73] Finally, on July 4, 1946, the Philippines achieved its independence from the American government.^[6]

Independence, Marcos dictatorship and Third Philippine Republic

After achieving its independence, the young nation faced several problems: the country had to be rebuilt from the ravages of the war and reach an accommodation with various collaborators and Japanese businessmen in order to begin its economic development. In rural areas, large landowners had their farms cultivated by tenants living in miserable conditions. They took a considerable share of the harvests—generally half—and often became the creditors of these heavily indebted farmers. Disputes between owners and farmers are frequent, and the authorities always side with the owners. The political class was made up of men often compromised with the Japanese—beginning with Manuel Roxas, who was elected president in April 1946. Conversely, deputies from the resistance to the Japanese occupation were barred from taking their seats in Congress in order to secure the majority needed to pass, in the summer of 1946, a constitutional amendment required to implement a law favorable to American economic interests.^[74]

Mainly between 1948 and 1954, the communist-inspired Hukbalahap peasant uprising fought against the Philippine government and the militias of the large landowners. The Philippine government resorted to specialized counterinsurgency units, which spread terror among rural civilian populations suspected of sympathizing with the rebellion. With military aid from the United States the government was able to weaken the movement, which had disappeared by the 1960s.^[25]^[75]

In 1965, Ferdinand Marcos was elected president, with his wife Imelda Marcos at his side. As the Constitution prohibited being re-elected more than twice to the presidency, at the end of his second term he declared martial law on September 21, 1972. To continue ruling by decree, he used as arguments the political division, the tension of the Cold War and the specter of communist rebellion and Islamic insurgency in the country.^[76] In this way he began a dictatorship that lasted more than ten years and was characterized by strict control of the economy and by political repression.^[77]^[78]

On August 21, 1983, Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino, Jr., leader of the opposition to the Marcos government, ignored the warnings and returned from exile in the United States. He was assassinated as his plane landed at Manila International Airport—now named Ninoy Aquino International Airport in his memory. As political pressure mounted, Marcos called presidential elections in 1986.^[25] Corazon Aquino, Benigno's widow, became the leader of the opposition and a candidate in the presidential race. When Marcos proclaimed himself the winner, many believed the elections had been rigged. This led to the EDSA Revolution, triggered when two of Marcos's oldest allies—Fidel Ramos y Valdez, Deputy Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces, and Juan Ponce Enrile, Secretary of National Defense—resigned and demonstrated at Camp Aguinaldo and Camp Crame. The Cardinal Archbishop of Manila, Jaime Sin, urged people to gather in support of the rebel leaders and to protest on Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA). In the face of massive protests and military defections, Marcos and his allies fled to Hawaii, where they were exiled. That same year, Corazon Aquino was named president.^[75]^[79]

The return of democracy and the government reforms after the events of 1986 were hampered by the national debt, corruption, coup d'état attempts, a persistent communist insurgency and Islamic separatist movements. Although the economy improved during the administration of Fidel Ramos, who was elected president in 1992,^[24] the onset of the Asian financial crisis of 1997 halted this progress. In 2001, amid accusations of corruption and a stalled impeachment process, Ramos's successor, Joseph Estrada, was ousted from the presidency by the EDSA Revolution of 2001 and replaced by Gloria Macapagal Arroyo.

Arroyo's nine years in government were characterized by economic growth,^[80] but this was tarnished by corruption and political scandals.^[81]^[82] On November 23, 2009, 34 journalists and several civilians were murdered in Maguindanao.^[83]^[84] In the 2010 presidential elections, Benigno "Noynoy" Aquino III and Jejomar Binay were elected to the posts of president and vice president, respectively.^[85] Economic growth continued during the administration of Aquino, who promoted better governance and transparency.^[86]^[87] In November 2013 Typhoon Haiyan devastated the central part of the archipelago, affecting more than eleven million Filipinos and causing the deaths of more than five thousand people;^[88]^[89] the press criticized the slow response of the Aquino III government.^[90] In 2015, in a clash that took place in Mamasapano, Maguindanao, 44 members of the Special Action Force of the Philippine National Police were killed, which caused the efforts to pass the Bangsamoro Basic Law to reach a stalemate.^[91]^[92]

The former mayor of Davao City, Rodrigo Duterte, won the 2016 presidential elections, becoming the first president from Mindanao.^[93]^[94]^[95] ^[96] Duterte launched an anti-drug campaign^[97]^[98] and an infrastructure program.^[99]^[100] The implementation of the Bangsamoro Organic Law led to the creation of the autonomous region of Bangsamoro in Mindanao.^[101]^[102] In early 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic reached the country,^[103]^[104] causing gross domestic product to shrink by 9.5%, the country's worst annual economic result since records began in 1947.^[105]

In the 2022 presidential elections, the son of Ferdinand Marcos, Ferdinand Marcos y Romuáldez, nicknamed "Bongbong Marcos", won the presidency;^[106]^[107] in this way the country's foreign policy has moved closer to China.^[108] In response to his critics,^[109] Bongbong has said that he will try to assert the Philippines' "maritime territorial rights" under his leadership despite seeking a rapprochement with China.^[110]

Government and politics

The Philippines is a constitutional republic with a presidential system of government, administered as a unitary state, with the exception of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, which is largely independent of the national government. The President serves as head of state and head of government, in addition to being the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The President is elected by popular vote for a single six-year term, during which he himself chooses and presides over his own cabinet.^[7] The Vice President is also elected by direct suffrage for a six-year term, and may be re-elected once. The Vice President may hold a cabinet post and, should the President die or resign, would become acting president and call elections. At the local level, executive power is represented by the governors of the provinces, the mayors of the cities and municipalities, and the captains of the barangays.^[111]

The bicameral Congress is composed of the Senate—equivalent to the upper house, with members elected for a six-year term—and the House of Representatives—the lower house, with members elected for a three-year term. Senators are elected at the same time as the President, while representatives are elected by legislative districts and through proportional representation.^[7] Congress is responsible for creating and passing laws and amendments to the constitution by means of resolutions and bills. For any bill to be approved it must receive more than two-thirds of the votes in favor in both chambers.^[112]

The judiciary is headed by the Supreme Court, composed of the Chief Justice as presiding justice and fourteen associate justices, who are chosen by the President from among several candidates proposed by the Judicial and Bar Council.^[7] The judiciary enjoys fiscal autonomy, although it is supervised by the Office of the Court Administrator. The Supreme Court also promulgates the rules of all courts and takes part in the process of training future lawyers.^[113] Since the Ramos administration, there have been several attempts to reform the government into a federal, unicameral or parliamentary system.^[114]^[115]

The legal system established by the 1987 Constitution contains elements inherited from the periods of Spanish and American rule. For example, matters concerning property and the family, and the absence of a jury in trials, are characteristic of continental law, which exists in Spain. However, the Anglo-Saxon common law installed by the United States at the beginning of the 20th century is what governs some of the most important legal matters. Notable among these are commerce, labor relations, taxes, banking and currency.^[116]

The Philippine multi-party system allows for the existence of numerous political parties, although in practice it is common for alliances to be formed to obtain more votes during electoral contests. For its part, the Commission on Elections (Comelec) designated six parties as the most important in the country: the Liberal Party, Lakas Kampi CMD, the Nacionalista Party, the Nationalist People's Coalition, the National Unity Party and the United Nationalist Alliance.^[117] Since 1992, national and local elections have been held every three years on the second Monday of May. Only the elections for President and Vice President take place every six years.^[118] The minimum voting age is 18. In the presidential elections held in 2010, just over 38 million voters took part, 74.34% of those on the electoral roll.^[119]

Although homosexuality is not illegal in the Philippines, there is some discrimination against this group on the part of society in general. Until 2009 homosexuals were prohibited from enlisting in the armed forces.^[120] Although many efforts have been made in the struggle for the rights of the LGBT community, same-sex marriage is still illegal and there is no recognition of legal unions performed in other countries.^[121]

Foreign relations

The international relations of the Philippines are based on trade with other nations and the well-being of the eleven million Filipinos who live outside the country.^[122] As a founder and active member of the United Nations, it has been elected several times to sit on the UN Security Council, and one of its nationals, Carlos P. Romulo, was President of the United Nations General Assembly. The country is an active participant in the Human Rights Council, as well as in peacekeeping missions, especially in East Timor.^[123]^[124]^[125]^[126]

In addition to its participation in the UN, the country is one of the founders and an active member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), an organization designed to strengthen relations and promote economic and cultural growth among the states of the Southeast Asian region.^[127] It has hosted several of its summits and is an active contributor to the direction and policies of the bloc.^[128] The relations it currently enjoys with other Southeast Asian states contrast with the situation in the 1970s, when it was at war with Vietnam and disputed the territory of Sabah with Malaysia, although disagreements still exist regarding the Spratly Islands.^[129]

It is also a member of the East Asia Summit (EAS), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the Latin Union, the Group of 24 and the Non-Aligned Movement, and it is considered a major non-NATO ally.^[7] It also seeks to strengthen its relations with Islamic countries through its bid to join the Organization of the Islamic Conference as an observer.^[130]^[131]

On the other hand, it has good relations with the United States, which it supported during the Cold War and the War on Terror.^[122] Nevertheless, in recent years the American presence at the military bases of Subic Bay and Clark and the Visiting Forces Agreement have generated some controversy.^[122] Japan, the largest official contributor of development aid to the country, is also considered one of its main allies.^[132] Although certain historical debates still persist between the two countries—especially on issues such as the comfort women—much of the enmity arising from the events of World War II has disappeared.^[133]

The Philippines has also established good relations with other nations. Sharing various democratic values facilitates its relations with European and Western countries. The economic problems it is going through help it build ties with other developing countries facing similar obstacles. Likewise, historical ties and cultural similarities bring it closer to Spain and Hispanic America.^[134] Despite the problems affecting Filipino workers abroad, such as domestic abuse and war, as well as the obstacles posed by an Islamic insurgency in Mindanao, relations with the countries of the Middle East—including Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Libya, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates—are good, which allows more than two million Filipinos to continue living and working in the region.^[135] For their part, relations with the People's Republic of China have improved considerably, especially since the 1950s. However, several issues related to the recognition of the Republic of China, the possession of the Spratly Islands and concern over the growth of Chinese influence prevent a close relationship between the two neighbors.^[133] Recently, Philippine foreign policy has been directed mainly toward establishing better economic relations with its neighbors in Southeast Asia and the Pacific.^[122]

In 2016 a ruling of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, located in The Hague, recognized Masinloc Shoal and other disputed islands as Philippine.^[136] In response, China has offered the Philippines to ignore the ruling in exchange for joint oil and gas drilling.^[137]

Armed forces

Defense is the responsibility of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, which is made up of three branches: the Air Force, the Army and the Navy (including the Marine Corps). In 2010, the armed forces had more than 331,500 active personnel, the 40th largest in the world.^[138] For its part, the Philippine National Police is responsible for civil security, under the command of the Department of the Interior and Local Government.

In the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, the most important separatist organization, the Moro National Liberation Front, is the one that politically governs the region. Other militant groups such as the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, the communists of the New People's Army and Abu Sayyaf still fight in other provinces, but their presence has been reduced in recent years thanks to the security operations implemented by the government.^[139]^[140]

It is also worth noting that the Philippines has been an ally of the United States since World War II: in 1951, both countries signed a mutual defense treaty. The Philippines supported American ideology during the Cold War, as well as American participation in the Korean and Vietnam wars. It was even a member of the now-dissolved SEATO, an organization whose aim was to play a role similar to NATO in the region, and whose members included Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand, the United Kingdom and the United States.^[141] After the start of the War on Terror, the Philippine military was part of the coalition that provided support to the U.S. in Iraq, for which it was designated a major non-NATO ally.^[142]

Human rights

Status of the main international human rights instruments
Instrument	Status
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR)	Signed and ratified
Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR-OP)	Neither signed nor ratified
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (CCPR)	Signed and ratified
First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (CCPR-OP1)	Signed and ratified
Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (CCPR-OP2)	Signed and ratified
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD)	Signed and ratified
International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance (CED)	Neither signed nor ratified
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)	Signed and ratified
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW-OP)	Signed and ratified
Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT)	Signed and ratified
Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture (CAT-OP)	Neither signed nor ratified
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)	Signed and ratified
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict (CRC-OP-AC)	Signed and ratified
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography (CRC-OP-SC)	Signed and ratified
International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (MWC)	Signed and ratified
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD)	Signed and ratified
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD-OP)	Neither signed nor ratified

Territorial organization

The Philippine archipelago is divided into three island groups: Luzon, the Visayas and Mindanao. These, in turn, are divided into 17 regions, 80 provinces, 138 cities, 1,496 municipalities and 42,025 barangays.^[143] In addition, Section 2 of Republic Act No. 5446 states that the definition of the territorial sea around Philippine territory has no effect on the claim over Sabah.^[144] The regions of the Philippines are listed below; the number shown in the table serves to locate them on the map to the right.

No.	Region	Designation	Regional center
1	Ilocos	Region I	San Fernando
2	Cordillera Administrative Region	CAR	Baguio
3	Cagayan Valley	Region II	Tuguegarao
4	Central Luzon	Region III	San Fernando
5	National Capital Region	NCR	Manila
6	Calabarzon	Region IV-A	Calamba
7	Mimaropa	Region IV-B	Calapan
8	Bicolandia	Region V	Legazpi
9	Eastern Visayas	Region VIII	Tacloban
10	Western Visayas	Region VI	Iloilo
11	Central Visayas	Region VII	Cebu
12	Zamboanga Peninsula	Region IX	Pagadian
13	Northern Mindanao	Region X	Cagayan de Oro
14	Caraga	Region XIII	Butuan
15	Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao	BARMM	Cotabato
16	Davao	Region XI	Davao
17	Soccsksargen	Region XII	Koronadal

Geography

The Philippines is an archipelago of 7,107 islands,^[7] with a total area of approximately 300,000 km² (including inland bodies of water). Its 36,289 km of coastline make it the country with the fifth longest coastline in the world.^[7]^[145] Philippine territory lies between coordinates 116°40′E and 126°34′E and 4°40′N and 21°10′N. It is bounded by the Philippine Sea to the east, the South China Sea (or West Philippine Sea) to the west and the Celebes Sea to the south. The island of Borneo lies only a few hundred kilometers to the southwest, and the island of Taiwan lies directly to the north. The Moluccas and Sulawesi lie to the southwest, and Palau is located to the east of the islands.^[7]

Most of the islands are mountainous, covered in dense tropical rainforest and of volcanic origin. The highest mountain is Mount Apo, with an altitude of 2,954 m above sea level, located on the island of Mindanao. The Galathea Depth in the Philippine Trench is the lowest point in the national territory, and the third deepest in the world, located on the floor of the Philippine Sea. Likewise, the longest river is the Cagayan, in northern Luzon. Manila Bay, where the city of the same name is located, is connected to Laguna de Bay (the largest lake in the Philippines) by the Pasig River. The most important river basins in the country are those of the Pulangi River and the Agusan in Mindanao and the Cagayan and the Pampanga in Luzon.^[146] Subic Bay, the Davao Gulf and the Moro Gulf are other of the most important bays. The San Juanico Strait separates the islands of Samar and Leyte, although they are connected thanks to the San Juanico Bridge.^[147]

Located on the western edge of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the territory experiences frequent seismic and volcanic activity. The Benham Plateau, to the east in the Philippine Sea, is an undersea region with very high tectonic subduction activity.^[148] Around 20 earthquakes are recorded daily, although most are too weak to be felt; the last major earthquake recorded was the 1990 Luzon earthquake.^[8] Likewise, there are many active volcanoes in the archipelago, such as Mount Mayon, Mount Pinatubo and Taal Volcano. The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991 was the largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century.^[149] However, not all notable landforms have such a violent or destructive origin: an example of the legacy of geological activity is the Puerto Princesa Underground River.

Mount Apo is the highest mountain in the Philippines.

Mineral deposits are abundant owing to the volcanic nature of the islands. The Philippines is estimated to have the second most important gold deposit after South Africa and one of the largest copper deposits in the world.^[150] The subsoil is also rich in zinc, chromium and nickel. Despite this, poor management, high population density and environmental awareness have caused these to remain largely unexploited.^[150] By contrast, geothermal energy is one of the products of volcanic activity that the country has exploited most successfully. The Philippines is the second largest producer of geothermal energy in the world, behind the United States, as it covers 18% of national electricity demand.^[151]

The Wallace Line, the biogeographical boundary that separates the regions of Asia and Oceania across the Malay Archipelago, passes to the south of the Philippines. The fauna, and to a lesser extent the flora, differ on either side, despite the geographical proximity and relative climatic similarity, reflecting separate evolutionary histories. The line runs between the islands of Bali and Lombok, east of Java; it continues between the island of Borneo, which it leaves to the west, and Celebes, and passes south of the Philippines.^[152]

Climate

The Philippines has a tropical maritime climate that is usually hot and humid. Three seasons are distinguished: tag-init or tag-araw, the hot dry season from March to May; tag-ulan, the rainy season from June to November; and tag-lamig, the cool dry season from December to February. The southwest monsoon (from May to October) is known as the Habagat, and the dry winds of the northeast monsoon (from November to April) as the Amihan.^[153] Temperatures normally range between 21 °C and 32 °C, although they can be cooler or warmer depending on the season; the coolest month is January and the hottest is May.^[7]^[154]

The mean annual temperature is around 26.6 °C.^[153] When examining temperatures, location in terms of latitude and longitude is not an important factor. Whether in the far north, south, east or west of the country, temperatures at sea level tend to be in the same range. Generally, it is altitude that has the most impact. The mean annual temperature of Baguio, located at an altitude of 1,500 m above sea level, is 18.3 °C, which makes it a popular destination during the hot summers.^[153]

Because they are located in a tropical cyclone zone, most of the islands experience torrential rains and thunderstorms from July to October,^[5] since on average some nineteen cyclones enter Philippine territory, and eight or nine of them make landfall in the archipelago.^[155]^[156]^[9] Mean annual precipitation is up to 5,000 mm in the mountainous section of the east coast, but less than 1,000 mm in some of the low valleys.^[5] The rainiest tropical cyclone to strike the country was the typhoon of July 1911, which dumped more than 1,168 mm of rain in just 24 hours in the city of Baguio.^[157] Since then, the term bagyo has been used in Tagalog to refer to a tropical cyclone.^[157]

Flora and fauna

The rainforests and extensive coastlines are home to a wide range of birds, plants, animals and marine creatures.^[10] The Philippines is one of the ten countries with the greatest biological diversity, with one of the highest rates of biodiversity per unit of area (up to 1,736 species per 100 km²).^[11]^[12]^[158] Around 1,100 species of terrestrial vertebrates can be found, including more than 100 species of mammals and 170 species of birds believed not to exist anywhere else.^[159] Notable endemic species include the tamaraw of Mindoro, the Visayan spotted deer, the Philippine mouse-deer, the Visayan warty pig, the Philippine flying lemur and several species of bats.^[160]

However, it lacks large predators, with the exception of snakes, such as pythons and cobras, and some birds of prey, such as the Philippine eagle, the national bird.^[161] Other native animals include the palm civet, the dugong and the Philippine tarsier. With an estimated 13,500 plant species in the country (3,200 of which are exclusive to the islands),^[159] Philippine rainforests boast an abundant flora, including many rare types of orchids and rafflesias.^[162]^[163] The narra is considered the most important hardwood of the national industry.^[164] Thanks to its tropical climate, flowering plants are abundant and are used as ornaments, for making perfumes and as food. Notable among these are the ylang-ylang and the sampaguita, the national flower.^[165]^[166] Other notable plant specimens include the 54 species of bamboo found throughout the archipelago; coconut palms, which are the basis of the economy of many localities; the nipa, mahogany and mabolo trees, whose wood is exploited for construction; the fruits of the pili nut, the durian and the lanzones; and the carnivorous plants known as monkey cups.^[165]

The country's marine waters cover about 2.2 million km² and harbor a unique and diverse marine life, which is an important part of the Coral Triangle.^[144] Some 2,400 species of fish and more than 500 species of coral live here.^[10]^[159] Apo Reef is the largest contiguous coral reef system in the country and the second largest in the world.^[167] Philippine waters also sustain the farming of pearls, crabs and seaweed.^[10]^[168]

Deforestation, often the result of illegal logging, is a serious problem in the Philippines. Forest cover declined from 70% of the country's total area in 1900 to 18.3% in 1999.^[169]^[170] Many species are in danger of extinction, and scientists assert that Southeast Asia, of which the Philippines is a part, faces a catastrophic extinction rate of 20% by the end of the 20th century.^[171] According to Conservation International, "the country is one of the few nations that is, in its entirety, a hotspot and a megadiversity country, which places it among the top-priority areas for global conservation".^[162]

Economy

The economy of the Philippines is among the fifty most powerful economies in the world, with a nominal GDP estimated at US$348 billion for 2017.^[2] Its main exports are semiconductors and electronic products, transport equipment, clothing, copper products, petroleum products, coconut oil and fruit.^[6] Its main trading partners are the United States, Japan, China, Singapore, South Korea, the Netherlands, Hong Kong, Germany, Taiwan and Thailand.^[6] Its currency is the Philippine peso (₱ or PHP).^[172] The Philippines is a member of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Asian Development Bank (headquartered in the city of Mandaluyong), the Colombo Plan and the G-77, among other groups and institutions.^[6]

As a newly industrialized country, the Philippine economy has shifted from being based on agriculture to focusing on services and manufacturing. Of the 38.1 million people who make up the country's labor force,^[6] the agricultural sector employs about 45.2%, but contributes only 13.8% of GDP. The industrial sector employs around 15.2% of the workforce and accounts for 30% of GDP. For its part, 39.6% of workers make up the service sector, which is responsible for 56.2% of GDP.^[15]^[172] In October 2013, the unemployment rate stood at around 6.5%, and owing to the global economic slowdown, in December of the same year inflation reached a level of 4.1%.^[172] In February 2010, gross international reserves stood at US$45,713 million.^[173]^[174] In 2004, public debt as a percentage of GDP was estimated at 74.2%; in 2008, it fell to 56.9%,^[6] while gross external debt rose to US$66,270 million.^[6] In July 2011, the inflation rate stood at 5.1%, showing an increase of more than one percentage point compared with the same month of 2010.^[175]

After the Second World War, it was considered the second richest economy in East Asia, behind only Japan's.^[122]^[176]^[177] However, during the 1960s it began to be overtaken. The economy stagnated under the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos, owing to political instability and poor economic management on the part of the regime.^[122]^[177] The country suffered slow economic growth and periods of recession. It was not until the 1990s that the economy began to recover, owing, according to various analysts, to a program of economic liberalization.^[122]^[177]

In 1997, the Asian financial crisis affected its economy, resulting in a continuous devaluation of the national currency and several falls in the stock market. Nevertheless, its effects in the Philippines were not as severe as for some of its Asian neighbors. This was largely due to the government's fiscal conservatism, the result of decades of fiscal monitoring and supervision by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), in comparison with the massive spending of its neighbors driven by a rapid acceleration of their economic growth.^[24] Since then, the Philippines has shown signs of progress. In 2004, the economy experienced GDP growth of 6.4%, and of 7.1% in 2007, its fastest rate of growth in three decades.^[2]^[178]^[179] However, the average annual growth of GDP per capita for the period 1966–2007 was 1.45%, compared with the average of 5.96% for East Asia and the Pacific as a whole, and in addition the daily income of 22.6% of the Philippine population remains below US$1.25.^[180] Despite enjoying stable economic growth during the first decade of the 21st century, by 2010 the country's economy was smaller than those of its Southeast Asian neighbors (Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore) in terms of GDP and nominal GDP per capita.^[181]

There are other imbalances and challenges in the Philippines. The economy is highly dependent on remittances, which surpass foreign direct investment as a source of foreign exchange. Regional development is uneven, since Luzon (in particular Metro Manila) captures much of the economic growth at the expense of other regions,^[182] although the government has taken measures to distribute economic growth by promoting investment in other areas of the country. Despite the constraints, services such as tourism and business process outsourcing have been identified as some of the best areas of opportunity for the country's growth.^[172]^[183] Goldman Sachs included the country in its list of "Next Eleven" economies,^[184] although China and India have emerged as its main economic competitors in the region.^[185]

According to the Global Innovation Index, compiled by the World Intellectual Property Organization, in 2022 the Philippines ranked 59th in innovation among 132 countries of the world;^[186] while in 2023, it ranked 56th.^[187]

Tourism

Thanks to its geographical conditions and the biodiversity found in the archipelago, the Philippines has numerous nature parks that serve as its main tourist attraction. The tourism industry began to develop in the 1970s. However, owing to the conflicts in the country, it was not until the end of the following decade that tourism began to form an important part of local economic development.^[189] Since then, tourism has been growing steadily, and it is estimated that by 2016 it would generate more than 7.4 million jobs, 18.8% of the workforce, and contribute between 8 and 9% of national GDP.^[190]

In 2012, 4,272,811 foreign tourists visited the Philippines, almost 10% more than the previous year. Most of them came from South Korea (24.1%), the United States (15.2%), Japan (9.6%), China (5.8%) and Taiwan (5%).^[191] The main tourist destinations include: Manila, mainly the old part of the city;^[189] Boracay, named the best island in the world by the magazine Travel + Leisure;^[192] Coron Island, famous for its Japanese Second World War shipwrecks and diving;^[193] the underground river of Puerto Princesa, declared one of the seven wonders of nature;^[194] the rice terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras, declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO;^[188] Vigan, another World Heritage Site characterized by its viceregal architecture;^[195] and the festivals of the cities of Cebu and Davao, among many others.^[196]

Infrastructure

Energy

Many analysts assert that, thanks to its geographical situation, the Philippines has enormous potential in energy resources. However, most renewable energy sources remain unused owing to the lack of economic resources and infrastructure for their exploitation. For example, it is estimated that the country could produce 35,000 MW if it used all the geothermal potential that exists in its territory.^[197] In 2010, of the 51,300 million kWh of electricity consumed in the country, 66.1% came from fossil fuels, 21.1% from hydroelectric plants and only 12.8% from other renewable energy sources. There are no nuclear power plants in the Philippines.^[6]

In the 1970s the government authorized the search for oil fields in the area of Sulu and Palawan, and by 1979 commercial exploitation of the fields discovered had begun.^[197] In 2010 it produced about 26,640 barrels of oil per day, along with 2,860 million m³ of natural gas.^[6] In addition, Philippine soils are rich in minerals such as copper, chromium, gold and nickel, and there are small deposits of cadmium, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum and silver.^[198]

Transportation

Transportation infrastructure is relatively underdeveloped. This is partly due to the mountainous terrain and the scattered geography of the islands, but it is also the result of low government investment. In 2003, only 3.6% of GDP was allocated to infrastructure development, a percentage significantly lower than that of some of its neighbors.^[5] Consequently, although there are 203,025 km of roads, only around 20% of the total is paved.^[6]

There are many ways to get around, especially in urban areas. Buses, jeepneys, taxis and motorized three-wheeled vehicles are available in the main cities. In 2007 there were approximately 5.53 million registered motor vehicles, with an average annual increase of 4.55%.^[199] There are also three railway networks that serve to connect the different areas of Metro Manila and other parts of Luzon: the Manila Metro (LRT), the Metro Manila Rail Transit System (MRT) and the Philippine National Railways (PNR).

As it is an archipelago, inter-island travel by boat is often necessary. The busiest ports are those of Iloilo, Manila, Cebu, Davao, Cagayan de Oro and Zamboanga.^[200] Passenger ships and other vessels, such as those operated by Superferry, Negros Navigation and Sulpicio Lines, connect Manila with various cities and towns. In 2003 the Strong Republic Nautical Highway (SRNH) was established, a set of road segments and ferry routes covering 919 km and connecting 17 cities.^[201] Some rivers that pass through metropolitan areas, such as the Pasig River and the Marikina, have passenger ferry service. This service on the Pasig River has numerous stops in Manila, Makati, Mandaluyong, Pasig and Marikina.^[202] There are another 3,219 km of navigable waterways in the interior of the country.^[6]

There are 85 public airports in the country, and around 111 more that are private.^[6] Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA) is the main international airport. Other important airports are Diosdado Macapagal International Airport, Mactan–Cebu International Airport, Francisco Bangoy International Airport and Zamboanga International Airport. Philippine Airlines, the oldest commercial airline in Asia still operating under its original name, and Cebu Pacific, the leading low-cost airline, are the country's main air carriers and those offering the greatest number of domestic and international destinations.^[203]^[204]^[205]

Media

The Philippines has a sophisticated mobile telephony industry and a high concentration of users.^[206] In 2008 there were about 67.9 million mobile phone subscribers in the country.^[207] Text messages are a popular form of communication and have fostered a culture of quick greetings and forwarded jokes among Filipinos. In 2007, the nation sent an average of one billion SMS messages per day.^[208] Apart from this growing number of text message users, more than five million use their phone as a virtual wallet, which makes the country a leader among developing nations in the provision of financial services through mobile phone networks.^[209]

The Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company, known as PLDT, is the main telecommunications provider, in addition to being the largest company in the country.^[206]^[210] Its subsidiaries, Smart Communications and Piltel, together with the Ayala group's Globe Telecom, BayanTel and Sun Cellular, are the most important mobile phone service providers in the national territory.

There are approximately 398 AM and 837 FM radio stations, 87 free-to-air television channels and 1,804 cable television channels.^[211] Estimates of Internet penetration in the Philippines vary widely, from a minimum of 5.1 million to a maximum of 24 million people.^[211]^[212] Social networks and video websites are among the most visited by Filipino users.^[213]^[214]

The Philippine media mainly use the Filipino language and English for their broadcasts. Some also use other local languages, especially on radio, owing to its ability to reach the most remote rural populations, which would otherwise have no other type of media. The dominant television networks, ABS-CBN and GMA Network, also have a broad presence on radio.^[215]

Some newspapers in the Philippines are the Manila Bulletin, The Daily Tribune and Cebu Daily News, among others.^[216]

The entertainment industry is very active, and feeds newspapers and tabloids with an endless supply of details about celebrities and sensationalist scandals. As in other countries, drama and fantasy series are outdone by Hispanic telenovelas, asianovelas and anime. Daytime television is dominated by talk shows (such as Eat Bulaga, Showtime and Happy, Yipee, Yehey), variety programs and game shows.^[217]

Demographics

The first official census was carried out in 1877 and recorded a population of 5,567,685 inhabitants.^[218] By 2010, the Philippines had become the 12th most populous nation in the world, with a population exceeding 92 million.^[2]^[219] The population growth rate between 1995 and 2000 was 3.21%, and it decreased to 1.95% for the 2005–2010 period; however, this rate is still a subject of debate.^[220]^[221] The median age of the population is 22.7 years, and 60.9% of Filipinos are between 15 and 64 years old.^[6] Life expectancy at birth is 71.38 years: 74.45 for women and 68.45 years for men.^[222]

There are some 11 million Filipinos living abroad.^[13] Since the liberalization of United States immigration laws in 1965, the number of people of Filipino descent in that country has grown significantly: by 2007, there were between 3 and 4 million Americans of Filipino origin.^[223]^[224] According to the United States Census Bureau, immigrants from the Philippines make up the second-largest group of people seeking family reunification, second only to Mexican immigrants.^[225] Some two million Filipinos work in the Middle East; almost half of them are in Saudi Arabia,^[226] and there is also a significant migratory flow toward Spain, a country where Filipino emigrants can acquire citizenship after two years of residence thanks to the dual nationality treaties between the two countries.

According to 2010 data, 49% of the population lived in cities.^[6] Large cities are made up of several localities called barangays, which comprise several "sitios" or neighborhoods. Six out of every ten Filipinos live in a barangay, which generally has a school, one or two supermarkets and a Catholic chapel or church.^[227] The growing urban population has produced a clash between the traditionalist values of rural inhabitants and the new customs of everyday life.^[228] The rate of urbanization is 2.3%.^[6] This rapid pace of urbanization is the reason why many of the migrants live in houses built with flimsy materials, such as cardboard and metal sheets, without basic services such as electricity, drinking water and sewerage.^[228]

Ethnic groups

According to the 2010 census, 24.4% of Filipinos are Tagalogs, 11.4% Bisaya/Binisaya, 9.9% Cebuanos, 8.8% Ilocanos, 8.4% Hiligaynons, 6.8% Bicolanos, 4% Waray, 3% Kapampangans, 2.5% Boholanos, 2% Pangasinans, and the remaining 18.8% are classified as "other".^[229] This general classification can be broken down to show more tribal groups such as the Moro, the Ibanag and the Ivatan.^[230] There are also several indigenous peoples, such as the Igorots, the Lumad, the Mangyan, the Bajau and the tribes of Palawan.^[231] The Negritos, such as the Aeta and the Ati, are considered among the first inhabitants of the islands.^[232]

Filipinos generally belong to various Asian ethnic groups linguistically classified as part of the Austronesian and Malayo-Polynesian language families.^[231] It is believed that thousands of years ago, the aborigines of Taiwan migrated to the Philippines, bringing with them knowledge of agriculture and ocean sailing, which led to the displacement of the first Negrito groups from the islands.^[233] The Manobo and Sama ethnic groups have an ancestral affinity with the Austroasiatic Mlabri and Htin peoples of mainland Southeast Asia. South Asian ancestry was also detected among Filipinos and reached its peak among the Dilaut people. A westward expansion of Papuan ancestry from Papua New Guinea to eastern Indonesia and Mindanao was also detected among the Blaan and Sangir.^[234]

Finally, Chinese, Spanish, Latin American, Indian,^[235] and American colonizers had offspring with the various ethnic groups that had developed in the islands.^[233] Their descendants are known as mestizos,^[236] of whom Chinese Filipinos are the most numerous, with two million people of pure Chinese descent, while Chinese-Filipino mestizos represent 20% of the population.^[237] According to a survey of cemetery samples, European Filipinos (mainly Spanish) make up 7% of the Filipino population.^[238] Ibero-Americans and their mixtures, on the other hand, make up 12.7% of the population.^[239] Other migrant ethnic groups that have settled in the country are Arabs, British, other Europeans, Indonesians, Japanese, Koreans and other South Asians.

Languages

Native languages (2000)^[240]
Tagalog	22 million
Cebuano	20 million
Ilocano	7.7 million
Hiligaynon	7 million
Kapampangan	3.1 million
Chavacano creole	1.2 million

Ethnologue lists 175 different languages in the Philippines, 171 of which are living languages, while four no longer have any known speakers. All of them are part of the Borneo–Philippines group of Malayo-Polynesian languages, which is itself a branch of the Austronesian language family, with the sole exception of Chavacano, which is a creole language based on Mexican Spanish.^[231]

According to the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines, Filipino and English are the official languages. Filipino is a de facto standard version of Tagalog, spoken in Metro Manila and other urban regions. Filipino and English are used in government, education, politics, the media, printing and business. The Constitution designates regional languages, such as Central Bikol, Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, Tagalog and Waray, as auxiliary official languages. It further stipulates that Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis.^[241] There are also other dialects that have regional relevance and validity.

There are currently around 400,000 Spanish speakers in the Philippines, which amounts to about 0.5% of the total population. However, the Instituto Cervantes in Manila reports that, for economic reasons related to globalization, interest in studying this language is growing. Likewise, that institute's branch in the Philippine capital is one of those with the most students.^[242]

Spanish was used to draft Aguinaldo's Declaration of Independence, the Malolos Constitution of the first Philippine republic in 1899, and the original lyrics of the national anthem. José Rizal also produced his entire body of work in the Spanish language.^[242] Cebuano and Tagalog, among other vernacular languages, retain the influence of Castilian.

Religion

More than 90% of the population is Christian: 80% belongs to the Catholic Church, while 10% belongs to other Christian denominations, such as the Philippine Independent Church, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the Iglesia ni Cristo, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the United Church of Christ, Jehovah's Witnesses and the Orthodox Church.^[243] The Philippines is one of the two Asian countries where Catholics are the majority, the other being East Timor.

Between 5 and 10% of the population is Muslim, living mostly in the regions of Mindanao, Palawan and Sulu, an area known as Bangsamoro or the "land of the Moros".^[244]^[245] Some of them have migrated to urban and rural areas in different parts of the country. Most Filipino Muslims practice Sunni Islam according to the Shafi'i school.^[43]

Many indigenous and tribal groups still practice various traditional religions, often syncretized with Christianity and Islam. Animism and shamanism remain present as currents of other traditional religions, through the albularyo, the babaylan and the manghihilot. Chinese traditional religion, Buddhism and Taoism are predominant in the communities of that ethnicity.^[245] The country also has a significant number of followers of the Baháʼí Faith.^[246]

Education

In 2008, the National Statistics Office reported a simple literacy rate of 93.4% and a functional literacy rate of 86.4%.^[6]^[172] The figures are similar for men and women.^[6] Spending on education is around 2.5% of GDP.^[6] According to the Department of Education (DepEd), in 2010 there were 44,846 primary schools and 10,384 secondary schools registered,^[247]^[248] while the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) listed 1,741 higher education institutions, 203 of which were public and 1,538 private.^[249] Classes begin in June and end in March, but most universities follow a semester calendar, from June to October and from November to March. In addition to the above, there are several foreign schools with their own curricula.^[7] Republic Act No. 9155 provides the legal framework for basic education in the Philippines, and defines primary and secondary education as compulsory and free.^[250]

Several government agencies are involved in education. The Department of Education covers primary, secondary and informal education; the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) administers post-secondary training and the middle level of education; and the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) supervises universities and graduate academic programs, in addition to regulating the standards for the delivery of higher education.^[251] In 2004, madrasas were incorporated in 16 regions throughout the country, mainly in the Muslim areas of Mindanao, under the auspices and program of the Department of Education.^[252] Public universities are non-sectarian entities and are classified as State Universities and Colleges (SUCs) and Local Universities and Colleges (LUCs).^[249] SUCs are funded by the National Government, as determined by Congress.^[253] The University of the Philippines is the national university and the largest and most important in the Philippines.^[254]

Health

Most of the country's health services are provided by private health institutions. In 2010, total health spending represented 3.6% of GDP.^[6] 65.3% came from private companies, while 34.7% came from government institutions and 1.3% from external resources. That same year, health spending represented around 6.7% of total government spending, while per capita spending was 63 dollars.^[255] The national health budget proposed for 2010 was 28 billion pesos (more than 597 million dollars), that is, ₱ 310 (US$ 7) per person.^[256] The government's share in covering total health spending has steadily decreased, and in addition, with the growth of the population, per capita spending is also falling.

In the Philippines there are some 90,370 physicians—1 for every 833 people—, 480,910 nurses, 43,220 dentists and 1 hospital bed for every 769 people.^[255] Retaining qualified professionals is a problem, since 70% of nursing graduates go abroad to work, with the result that the country is the largest supplier of nurses in the world.^[257] In 2012 there were some 1,800 hospitals throughout the national territory, of which around 40% were state-owned and the other 60% private.^[258] Cardiovascular diseases cause more than 25% of deaths. According to official estimates, between January and August 2012, 2,156 new cases of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection were recorded, of which 116 developed acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Since records began in 1984, 353 people have died from this disease in Philippine hospitals.^[259]^[260]

Main localities

Metro Manila, also known as the National Capital Region, comprises the city of Manila itself, 15 other nearby cities and one municipality. Ten of its component cities are among the twenty most populous in the country. With an estimated population of more than 11 million inhabitants, Metro Manila ranks among the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. The population of its metropolitan area, which includes parts of other neighboring provinces, exceeds 20 million.^[261] Davao in Mindanao and Cebu in the Visayas are other important urban areas. The table below shows the twenty most populous cities in the Philippines.

Culture

Filipino culture is a combination of Eastern and Western culture. The Philippines displays aspects found in other Asian countries with a Malay heritage;^[263] however, its culture also shows a great deal of Spanish and American influence.^[264] Thus, the traditional celebrations known as barrio fiestas to commemorate a saint's feast day are common,^[265] while festivals such as the Moriones and the Sinulog are also celebrated.^[266]^[267] These community celebrations are accompanied by banquets, music and dancing. Some traditions, however, are gradually changing or being forgotten due to modernization.^[268]

Mural by the artist Seb Toussaint in the Gagalangin neighborhood of Manila.

One of the most visible Hispanic legacies is the prevalence of Spanish-origin given names and surnames among Filipinos.^[264] However, a name does not necessarily denote Spanish ancestry. This peculiarity, unique among the peoples of Asia, came about as the result of a government decree, the Clavería Edict, for the systematic distribution of family names and the application of the Spanish naming system.^[26] The names of many streets, cities and provinces are also in Spanish, and all the languages spoken in the Philippines have hundreds of Hispanic loanwords.^[269]

The common use of the English language is an example of the American impact on Filipino society.^[269] It has contributed to the full acceptance and influence of American popular culture trends. This affinity is manifested in Filipinos' taste for fast food, film and the music of the United States.^[264] Fast-food outlets are found on the corners of the most important streets. Although the major international fast-food chains have entered the market, local fast-food chains such as Goldilocks and, most notably, Jollibee, the leading fast-food chain in the country, have emerged and compete successfully against their foreign rivals.^[270]^[271]

Art

Before the arrival of the Europeans, each ethnic group developed and refined its own artistic expressions, influenced by Malay, Chinese and Islamic art. However, it was during the Spanish conquest that the missionaries introduced Western techniques for the practice of various arts. Thus, once the Filipinos converted to Christianity, they stopped carving small idol figures and devoted themselves to making retablos, reliefs and sculptures of saints of the Catholic Church.^[272] After the 19th century, sculpture moved toward other, non-religious forms of expression; the works known as Tipos del país—sculptures showing people of the various Filipino ethnic groups performing the tasks of their daily lives—became the most popular.^[273]

As with sculpture, the first Filipino paintings are religious in character, since the teaching of this art was for exclusive use in the church.^[272] Toward the end of this period, European influence grew stronger and Filipino classicism developed. American domination opened the doors to modernist trends in painting, which have enriched the nation's pictorial heritage.^[274] The Bayanihan Philippine National Folk Dance Company has been recognized for its effort to preserve many of the traditional dances practiced throughout the Philippines. Its performances of iconic Filipino dances have become famous, especially dances such as the tinikling and the singkil, characterized by the use of bamboo poles to represent confrontations.^[275]

Filipino music can be classified into three large groups: folk music, Spanish-influenced music and contemporary music.^[276] Folk music encompasses all the traditions that survive among the country's indigenous groups. The main musical instruments used are the gong, the xylophone, flutes, log drums, the harp and bamboo zithers, among others.^[277] Spanish-influenced music is mostly religious, although secular forms combined folk elements with Hispanic music to create various traditional songs. The main legacy of this style are the rondallas and the Filipino adaptation of the Spanish estudiantinas.^[278] Finally, contemporary music is strongly tied to American trends, lifestyle and popular culture. So-called Pinoy pop is a Filipino genre that combines various Western styles such as rock, jazz, hip-hop, disco music and pop with the country's folk traditions.^[276]

The National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA), created in 1987 by President Corazon Aquino, is the body in charge of the creation, promotion, coordination and regulation of all cultural and artistic programs, policies and activities.^[279] The Order of National Artists is the highest recognition granted by the NCCA to those artists who make important contributions to the development and promotion of the Filipino arts. As of 2013, only 57 people had received this appointment, in fields spanning architecture, film, the visual arts, literature, fashion design, dance, historical literature, music and theater.^[280]

Architecture

The architecture of the Philippines is characterized by a strong Spanish influence and the integration of multiple elements of the culture of the native Filipinos. Indeed, according to local folklore, typical Filipino houses must meet certain architectural characteristics to ensure good luck and prosperity for the family living in them. For example, the ideal house should receive the morning sun on two of its façades. Staircases should face east, should not be located in the center of the building, and should not have a number of steps that is a multiple of three. Other considerations include not placing two doors facing each other, not building basements, placing the bed away from the door, and making the dining room the largest and brightest space in the house.^[281]

Spanish architecture left its mark on the Philippines in the layout of many towns that were designed around a central plaza, but many of the buildings showing its architectural influence were demolished during the Second World War.^[18] Some architectural examples that remain standing are mainly churches, government buildings and universities. Indeed, UNESCO's World Heritage list includes four Filipino Baroque churches of Spanish workmanship: the Church of San Agustín in Manila, the Church of San Agustín in Paoay, the Church of Our Lady of the Assumption and the Church of Santo Tomás de Villanueva.^[282] Vigan, in Ilocos Sur, is also renowned for the many Hispanic-style houses and buildings still preserved there.^[283]

After American rule and the Second World War, Filipino architecture began to adapt modern Western architectural currents, which were combined with local traditions and culminated in the creation of the "Filipino style", present in buildings such as the seat of the House of Representatives and the houses of government housing programs.^[284] The United Architects of the Philippines (UAP) is an organization created in 1974 to regulate and organize all certified architects in the country and to support and promote their work nationally and internationally.^[285]

Cinema

Cinema in the Philippines began with the introduction of the first film on January 1, 1897, at the Salón de Pertierra in Manila. The following year, the Spaniard Antonio Ramos made the first filming with the Lumière brothers' cinematograph. In 1912, with the arrival of North American filmmakers, two short films were made about José Rizal (Vida de Rizal by E.M Gross and H.Brown and El fusilamiento del Doctor José Rizal by Albert Yearsley).^[286] The first film made by a Filipino was Dalagang Bukid (Country Maiden), a film based on a popular musical, directed by José Nepomuceno.^[287] Known as the "father of Filipino cinematography", his work marked the beginning of film as an art form in the islands.Armes 1987, p. 152 The Philippines was the last country to establish a national film archive, inaugurated in October 2011.^[288]

Even with the problems that cinema currently faces, films are still considered one of the most popular forms of entertainment among Filipinos. The film industry employs more than 260,000 people and generates around ₱ 2 billion annually.^[289] Some of the most successful Filipino films include: Kailangan Kita (2002), Libingan (2007), Ang Lihim ni Antonio (2008), Bata Bata Paano Ka Ginawa? (1998), Ang Pagdadalaga ni Maximo Oliveros (2005), Moral (1982), Mababangong Bangungot (1979), Tinimbang Ka Ngunit Kulang (1974), Kisapmata (1981) and Oro Plata Mata (1982).^[290] Among the most critically acclaimed directors and actors of Filipino origin are Lino Brocka and Nora Aunor, for films such as Maynila: Sa mga Kuko ng Liwanag and Himala. In recent years, it has become common to see Filipino celebrities move between television and film and then into political activism.^[291]

Mythology and literature

Filipino mythology has been transmitted mainly through the popular literature and oral tradition of the Filipino people. While each ethnic group has its own unique stories and myths, Hindu and Spanish influence can be detected in many cases. Many of the myths are creation stories or stories about supernatural creatures, such as the aswang (vampire), the diwata (fairies) and nature. Some popular figures of Filipino mythology are Tikbalang, Maria Makiling, Lam-Ang and the Sarimanok.^[292]

Filipino literature comprises works generally written in Filipino, Spanish and English. Some of the best-known Filipino works were created in the 19th century. Francisco Balagtas, a poet and playwright who wrote Florante at Laura, is recognized as a prominent writer in the Filipino language. José Rizal wrote the novels Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, in which he depicted the injustices of Spanish rule. His death by firing squad inspired other Filipino revolutionaries to seek independence, and he is considered a national hero. In the 20th century, among the Filipino writers officially recognized as National Artists of the Philippines, the following stand out: N.V.M. González, Nick Joaquín, F. Sionil José and Alejandro Roces.^[293]

Festivities

Each year, the Congress of the Philippines agrees on a calendar of the festivities and non-working days to be observed throughout the country. In general, these holidays coincide with the anniversary of historical events or are religious celebrations. The main festivities observed in the Philippines are:^[294]

Date	Festivity	Local name	Notes
January 1	New Year's Day	Araw ng Bagong Taon	Start of the Gregorian calendar year. December 31 is also a non-working day.
February 25	Anniversary of the EDSA Revolution	Anibersaryo ng Himagsikang Lakas ng Taumbayan	Beginning of the EDSA Revolution, which took place in 1986.
Variable	Holy Week	Semana Santa	The non-working days are Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Holy Saturday.
April 9	Day of Bataan	Araw ng Kagitingan	Commemorates the Battle of Bataan, which took place during the Second World War.
May 1	Labor Day	Araw ng Paggawa	Commemoration of International Workers' Day.
June 12	Independence Day	Araw ng Kalayaan	Declaration of Philippine independence from Spain.
August 21	Ninoy Aquino Day	Araw ni Ninoy Aquino	Anniversary of the assassination of Ninoy Aquino.
Variable	National Heroes' Day	Pambasang Araw ng mga Bayani	Celebrated on the last Monday of August.
November 1	All Saints' Day	Todos los Santos / Araw ng mga Patay / Araw ng mga Banal	Religious festivity in honor of the dead. November 2 is also a non-working day.
November 30	Bonifacio Day	Araw ni Bonifacio	In honor of the birth of the revolutionary Andrés Bonifacio.
December 25	Christmas	Pasko	December 24 is also a non-working day.
December 30	José Rizal Day	Araw ni Rizal	In honor of the death of José Rizal, poet and national hero.

Gastronomy

Filipino gastronomy has evolved over several centuries from its Malayo-Polynesian origins into a mixed cuisine with many Hispanic, Chinese, American and other Asian influences, which have been adapted to local ingredients and palates to create distinctly Filipino dishes. The range of dishes goes from the simple, such as a meal of fried fish with salt and rice, to the very elaborate, such as the cocidos and paellas prepared for fiestas. The most popular dishes include lechón, adobo, sinigang, kare kare, tapa, crispy pata, pancit, lumpia, halo-halo and puto. Some local ingredients commonly used in cooking are calamondins, coconuts, saba, mangoes, milkfish and various fish. Filipino taste tends to favor strong flavors, but their dishes are not as spicy as those of their neighbors. One of the most famous dishes is balut. This food consists of an already fertilized duck egg with its embryo inside; its preparation is the same as that of a boiled egg. In several Asian countries it is considered a delicacy, since it provides a high protein content. It is usually sold at street stalls.^[271]^[295]

Unlike in many Asian countries, Filipinos do not eat with chopsticks but use Western cutlery. However, possibly because rice broth is the main staple food and because of the popularity of a large number of stews and dishes made with rice, the main pair of utensils on the Filipino table is the spoon and fork, not the knife and fork.^[296] The traditional way of eating with the hands, known as kamayan, is seen more often in less urbanized areas.^[297]

Sports

There are several popular sports and pastimes in the country, most notably basketball, boxing, badminton, taekwondo, billiards, bowling, chess and sipa. Extreme sports such as motocross, cycling and mountaineering are also gaining popularity. Basketball is played at both the amateur and professional levels and is considered the most popular sport in the country.^[298] Indeed, there is a basketball court in almost every city neighborhood.^[275] The national team has taken part in several editions of the Olympic Games and the World Basketball Championship—where it won a bronze medal in 1954—and in multiple regional and local tournaments.^[299]^[300]

The Philippines has taken part in the Olympic Games since 1924 and, up to the 2012 edition, had won a total of nine medals: seven bronze and two silver. Of these, five came from boxing, two from swimming and two from athletics events.^[301] Some Filipinos recognized for their sporting achievements include Francisco Guilledo, Gabriel Elorde and Manny Pacquiao in boxing; Paulino Alcántara in football; Carlos Loyzaga, Robert Jaworski and Ramón Fernández in basketball; Efren Reyes in billiards; Eugene Torre in chess; and Rafael Nepomuceno in bowling.^[302]^[303]^[304]

Children and young people in the country still play several traditional Filipino games, such as luksung baka, patintero, piko and tumbang preso.^[305]^[306] Sungka and mahjong are two of the most popular board games in the country. Card games are played mainly during certain festivities, although some, including pusoy and tong-its, are used for illegal gambling. The yo-yo was introduced in its modern form by Pedro Flores, and its name comes from the Ilocano language.^[307]^[308]

Finally, arnis / Eskrima / kali is officially the martial art and the national sport of the Philippines.^[309] Cockfighting was already flourishing in pre-Hispanic Philippines, as recorded by Antonio Pigafetta, the Italian chronicler aboard Ferdinand Magellan's 1521 expedition.

Notes

↑ More than 170 languages are spoken in the Philippines, but only these two have official status. For more information, see the section "Languages".
↑ Recognized by the Constitution.
↑ The Filipino revolutionaries declared their independence from Spain on June 12, 1898, but sovereignty passed from Spain to the United States in the Treaty of Paris.
↑ In American historiography, the Battle of Cavite is called the Battle of Manila Bay.

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External links

Wikimedia

News about the Philippines on Wikinews (in Spanish)

Wikimedia Atlas of Philippines

Government (in English)

General information

Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members (in English) Archived 2020-10-17 at the Wayback Machine
Philippines at UCB Libraries GovPubs (in English).
Philippine News and Current Affairs
Guide to the Philippines

Geographic data related to Philippines at OpenStreetMap

[1] More than 170 languages are spoken in the Philippines, but only these two have official status. For more information, see the section "Languages".

[2] Recognized by the Constitution.

[3] The Filipino revolutionaries declared their independence from Spain on June 12, 1898, but sovereignty passed from Spain to the United States in the Treaty of Paris.

[69] In American historiography, the Battle of Cavite is called the Battle of Manila Bay.

[4] Central Intelligence Agency (2023). "Philippines - The World Factbook".

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[243] In English: "Classification Trends among Contemporary Filipino Crania Using Fordisc 3.1". Human Biology. 2 (4). University of Florida Press: 1–11. 2019. doi:10.5744/fa.2019.1005. Retrieved 2020-09-13. [Page 1] ABSTRACT: Filipinos represent a significant contemporary demographic group globally, yet they are underrepresented in the forensic anthropological literature. Given the complex population history of the Philippines, it is important to ensure that traditional methods for assessing the biological profile are appropriate when applied to these peoples. Here we analyze the classification trends of a modern Filipino sample (n = 110) when using the Fordisc 3.1 (FD3) software. We hypothesize that Filipinos represent an admixed population drawn largely from Asian and marginally from European parental gene pools, such that FD3 will classify these individuals morphometrically into reference samples that reflect a range of European admixture, in quantities from small to large. Our results show the greatest classification into Asian reference groups (72.7%), followed by Hispanic (12.7%), Indigenous American (7.3%), African (4.5%), and European (2.7%) groups included in FD3. This general pattern did not change between males and females. Moreover, replacing the raw craniometric values with their shape variables did not significantly alter the trends already observed. These classification trends for Filipino crania provide useful information for casework interpretation in forensic laboratory practice. Our findings can help biological anthropologists to better understand the evolutionary, population historical, and statistical reasons for FD3-generated classifications. The results of our studyindicate that ancestry estimation in forensic anthropology would benefit from population-focused research that gives consideration to histories of colonialism and periods of admixture. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)

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[lonelyplanet44-279] 275.0 ^275.1 Rowthorn & Bloom 2006, p. 44

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[lonelyplanet145-287] Rowthorn & Bloom 2006, p. 145

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[nota 1]

[nota 2]

[nota 3]

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

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[7]

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[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

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[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

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[38]

[39]

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[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[nota 4]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

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[96]

Exports to^[6]		Imports from^[6]
China	21.3%	China	14.6%
Japan	14.1%	Japan	12.3%
United States	13.9%	United States	9.4%
Singapore	8.9%	South Korea	8.4%
Hong Kong	7.5%	Singapore	8%
Others	34.3%	Others	47.3%

Main cities of the Philippines
Quezon City Manila Caloocan	No.	City	Region	Pop.	No.	City	Region	Pop.	Davao Cebu Zamboanga
	1	Quezon City	Metro Manila	2,761,720	11	Parañaque	Metro Manila	588,126
	2	Manila	Metro Manila	1,652,171	12	Dasmariñas	Calabarzon	575,817
	3	Caloocan	Metro Manila	1,489,040	13	Valenzuela	Metro Manila	575,356
	4	Davao	Davao	1,449,296	14	Las Piñas	Metro Manila	552,573
	5	Cebu	Central Visayas	866,171	15	General Santos	Soccsksargen	538,036
	6	Zamboanga	Zamboanga Peninsula	807,129	16	Makati	Metro Manila	529,039
	7	Antipolo	Calabarzon	677,741	17	Bacoor	Calabarzon	520,216
	8	Pasig	Metro Manila	669,773	18	Bacolod	Western Visayas	511,820
	9	Taguig	Metro Manila	644,473	19	Muntinlupa	Metro Manila	459,941
	10	Cagayan de Oro	Northern Mindanao	602,088	20	San Jose del Monte	Central Luzon	454,553
	2010 Census^[262]

Republic of the Philippines Republika ng Pilipinas (Filipino) Republic of the Philippines (English)
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: Maka-Diyos, Maka-Tao, Makakalikasan at Makabansa (in Filipino: "For God, people, nature, and country")
Anthem: Lupang Hinirang (in Tagalog: "Beloved Land") (original title in Spanish: "Marcha Nacional Filipina") File:Philippine National Anthem, the Lupang Hinirang, Himno Nacional Filipino Unknown Artist.ogg

Capital	Manila 14°35′20″N 120°58′17″E / 14.5889°N 120.971489°E / 14.5889; 120.971489
Largest city	Quezon City 14°38′00″N 121°02′00″E / 14.63333°N 121.03333°E / 14.63333; 121.03333
Official languages	Filipino and English^{[nota 1]}
Spoken languages	Regional languages of the Philippines. Recognized languages: Spanish and Arabic^{[nota 2]}
Demonym	Filipino
Member of	UN, CIN, ASALE, ASEAN (member state), APEC, LU
Government	Unitary presidential republic

• President	Ferdinand Marcos y Romuáldez
• Vice President	Sara Duterte

Independence^{[nota 3]}

• from Spain	1898
• First Republic	1899–1901
• American occupation	1901–1935
• Philippine Commonwealth	1935–1942/1945–1946
• Japanese Occupation	1942–1945
• Independence from the United States	1946

Area
• Total	300,000 km² (120,000 sq mi) (72nd)
• Water (%)	0.6
• Land borders	0 km
• Coastline	36,289 km
Population
• 2023 estimate	116,434,200^[1] (13th)
• Density	388/km² (1,004.9/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)	2021 estimate
• Total	US$ 1,000,617 million^[2] (29th)
• Per capita	US$ 9,061
GDP (nominal)	2021 estimate
• Total	US$ 402,638 million^[2] (34th)
• Per capita	3,646 dollars
Gini (2018)	42.3 medium^[3] Error: Invalid Gini value
HDI (2022)	0.710^[4] high (113th)
Currency	Philippine peso (₱) (PHP)
Time zone	UTC+8:00 (PST)
	Not observed.
Calling code	+63
ISO 3166 code	608 / PHL / PH
Internet TLD	.ph
Radio call sign prefix: DUA-DZZ / 4DA-4IZ · Aircraft registration: RPC · Vehicle registration: RP

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