Crown of Castile

*Corona Castellae*
Corona Castellae
1230–1715
	Flag Coat of arms of Castile and León
	Crown of Castile around 1400.
Capital	Itinerant court; Madrid (1561–1601), Valladolid (1601–1606), Madrid (from 1606)
Official languages	Latin (until 1260); Castilian (from 1260)
Unofficial languages	Astur-Leonese, Galician, Basque, Andalusi Arabic
Government	Monarchy
King
• 1230–1252	Ferdinand III
• 1700–1746	Philip V
Legislature	Cortes of Castile
History
• Union of Castile and León	1230
• Conquest of Granada	January 2, 1492
• Discovery of America	October 12, 1492
• Union of the Crowns of Castile and Aragon	March 14, 1516
• Nueva Planta decrees	1715
Area
1516	380,000 km2 (150,000 sq mi)
Population
• 1516	4,500,000
• 1594	8,206,000
Currency	Spanish real, maravedí
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	Kingdom of León
	Kingdom of Castile
	Third taifa kingdoms
	Nasrid Kingdom of Granada
Bourbon Reforms
	↑ Burgos and Toledo disputed precedence in the Cortes. Primacy of the Diocese of Toledo. Valladolid was the judicial capital from 1371 (Royal Chancery of Valladolid) until the creation of a second Chancery in Granada in 1505. ; ↑ As capital of the Hispanic Monarchy. ; ↑ 3.0 3.1 Overseas territories are not included. ;

The Crown of Castile (Latin: Corona Castellae), as a historical entity, is usually considered to begin with the last and definitive union of the Crowns of León and Castile, with their respective kingdoms and entities, in 1230, or else with the union of their Cortes, some decades later. In that year of 1230, Ferdinand III "the Saint", King of Castile since 1217 (including the Kingdom of Toledo) and son of Alfonso IX of León and his second wife, Berenguela of Castile, became King of León (whose kingdom included that of Galicia), after Teresa of Portugal, the first wife of Alfonso IX, renounced the rights of her daughters, the Infantas Sancha and Dulce, to the throne of León in the Concord of Benavente.^[1]

History

From the Kingdom of León to those of León and Castile

The Kingdom of León arose from the Kingdom of Asturias, which also occupied the Asturias de Santillana after the pact between Peter, Duke of Cantabria, and Don Pelayo of Asturias, which they sealed with the marriage of their children. Castile was at first a county within the Kingdom of León. In the second half of the 10th century, during the Leonese civil wars, it behaved with ever greater independence, finally falling into the Navarrese orbit during the reign of Sancho III the Great, who would secure the county for his son Ferdinand Sánchez through his wife Muniadona after the murder of Count García Sánchez in 1028.^[2]

In 1037, Ferdinand I rebelled against the King of León, Bermudo III,^[3] who died at the Battle of Tamarón,^[4]^[5] and became King of León through his marriage to Bermudo's sister, Sancha.^[6] The Castilian county thus became part of the royal patrimony.

From the beginning of the Reconquista, the frontier of the Ebro had been disputed among Muslims, Leonese, Navarrese and Aragonese. The Kingdom of Nájera and the Diocese of Calahorra were finally incorporated into the Crown of Castile in 1176 after passing from hand to hand since 923, notable for their importance on the Way of Saint James promoted by Saint Dominic de la Calzada and by Saint Millán de la Cogolla.

Upon his death, Ferdinand divided his states among his sons. His favorite, Alfonso, received the Kingdom of León^[7] and the primacy over his brothers that this title granted him. To Sancho fell his father's patrimonial state, the County of Castile, raised to the rank of kingdom,^[7]^[8] and the youngest, García, received Galicia.^[9] The division lasted little: between 1071 and 1072 Sancho overthrew his brothers and annexed their states,^[10] but he was murdered that latter year,^[11] whereupon his brother Alfonso VI managed to reunify once again the inheritance of Ferdinand I, which remained undivided until 1157. In that year the Emperor Alfonso VII died, bequeathing León to Ferdinand II and Castile to Sancho III. Sancho was succeeded by Alfonso VIII of Castile, and Ferdinand II by Alfonso IX, who from his marriage to Berenguela of Castile, daughter of Alfonso VIII, fathered Ferdinand, the future Saint King.

When the son and successor of Alfonso of Castile, Henry I, died in 1217, Ferdinand III inherited the Kingdom of Castile from his mother and, in 1230, after the death of his father and the renunciation of the Infantas Sancha and Dulce, acceded to that of León. Likewise, he took advantage of the weakness of the Almohad kingdom to advance the Reconquista enormously, taking the Guadalquivir Valley while his son Alfonso conquered the Kingdom of Murcia.

The kings of the Crown of Castile (Joanna I) held the titles of King of Castile, León, Navarre, Granada, Toledo, Galicia, Murcia, Jaén, Córdoba, Seville, the Algarves, Algeciras and Gibraltar and of the Canary Islands and of the Indies, islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea, and Lord of Biscay and Molina.^[12] Their heir bore the title of Prince of Asturias.

Unification of the Cortes

The union of the kingdoms under one sovereign had as a consequence, though not immediately, the union of the Cortes of León and Castile. They were organized into three estates (brazos), corresponding respectively to the noble, ecclesiastical and citizen orders, and although the number of cities represented in the Cortes varied over time, it was King John I who definitively fixed the specific cities that would have the right to send procuradores to the Cortes: Burgos, Toledo, León, Seville, Córdoba, Murcia, Jaén, Zamora, Segovia, Ávila, Salamanca, Cuenca, Toro, Valladolid, Soria, Madrid, Guadalajara and Granada (from 1492 onward).

Under Alfonso X, most meetings of the Cortes were joint for all the kingdoms. The Cortes of 1258 in Valladolid are De Castiella e de Estremadura e de tierra de León ("Of Castile and of Extremadura and of the land of León"), and those of Seville in 1261 De Castiella e de León e de todos los otros nuestros Regnos ("Of Castile and of León and of all our other Kingdoms"). Later some separate Cortes were held, as for example in 1301 (Burgos for Castile, Zamora for León), but the representatives of the cities asked for a return to unification:

The Castilian representatives requested: Pues yo agora estas cortes fazía aquí en Castiella apartada miente de los de Estremadura de tierra de León, que daquí adelante que non fiziese nin lo tomase por huso ("Since I now held these Cortes here in Castile separately from those of Extremadura and the land of León, that from now on I should not do so nor take it as a custom")
As did the Leonese: que quando oviere de facer Cortes que las faga con todos los omnes de la mi tierra en uno ("that when I must hold Cortes, I should hold them with all the men of my land together") in Leonese lands.

Although at first the individual kingdoms and the cities kept their particular rights (among which were the Fuero Viejo de Castilla or the different municipal fueros of the councils of Castile, León, Extremadura and Andalusia), a Castilian territorial law was soon articulated around the Partidas (c. 1265), the Ordenamiento de Alcalá (1348) and the Laws of Toro (1505), which remained in force until 1889, the year in which the Spanish Civil Code was promulgated.

Patronage and the payment of the Vow

The providentialist justification of the origins of each kingdom and its primacy was an extremely important question (not only in the Middle Ages, but throughout the entire Ancien Régime), and debates arose as to which supernatural entity should exercise patronage and over which specific territory, with even fiscal consequences. The origin went back to mythologized battles of the 8th to 10th centuries, for which the chronicles recorded miraculous interventions: the Battle of Covadonga, the Battle of Clavijo or the Battle of Simancas.

The Castilian language and the universities

In the 13th century numerous languages existed in the kingdoms of León and Castile, such as Castilian, Astur-Leonese, Basque or Galician. But in that century Castilian began to gain ground as a vehicular and cultural instrument (for example the Cantar de mio Cid).

In the last years of Ferdinand III, Castilian began to be used for certain documents. But the Castilian language attained official status under Alfonso X. From then on all public documents would be drafted in Castilian; likewise, translations, instead of being rendered into Latin, would be made into that language:

Mandólo trasladar del arábigo en lenguaje castellano porque los homnes lo entendiesen mejor et se supiesen del más aprovechar ("He ordered it translated from Arabic into the Castilian language so that men might understand it better and know how to profit more from it")

Some consider that the replacement of Latin by Castilian was due to the strength of the new language, while others consider that it was due to the influence of Hebrew intellectuals, hostile to Latin as the language of the Christian Church.

Also in the 13th century a great number of universities began to be founded in the territories that would form the Crown of Castile; some, such as those of Palencia, Salamanca or Valladolid, would be among the first European universities. In 1492, under the Catholic Monarchs, the first edition of the Grammar of the Castilian Language by Antonio de Nebrija would be published.

Alfonso X would be succeeded by his son Sancho IV in 1284, and the latter by his son Ferdinand IV in 1295, during whose minority the Kingdom was governed as regent by his mother, Queen María de Molina.

14th–15th centuries: reign of the Trastámaras

Rise of the Trastámaras to the throne

When Ferdinand IV died in 1312, his son Alfonso XI acceded to the throne, with another period of regency due to his minority. To protect their interests from the attacks of the nobles, the cities organized at the Cortes of Burgos of 1315 a General Brotherhood, which would later be suppressed by the Monarch, who in addition promulgated the Ordenamiento de Alcalá of 1348 as a symbol of the strengthening of royal authority.^[13] On Alfonso's death in 1350 a dynastic conflict began, framed within the Hundred Years' War, between his sons Peter and Henry. Alfonso XI had married María of Portugal, by whom he had his heir, the Infante Peter. However, the King also had several natural children with Eleanor de Guzmán, among them the Infante Henry, Count of Trastámara, who disputed the kingdom with Peter once the latter acceded to the throne.

In his struggle against Henry, Peter allied himself with Edward, Prince of Wales, called the Black Prince. In 1367 the Black Prince defeated Henry's supporters at the Battle of Nájera. The Black Prince, seeing that the King did not keep his promises, left the kingdom, a circumstance that Henry, who had taken refuge in France, used to resume the struggle. Finally Henry triumphed in 1369 at the Battle of Montiel and put Peter to death. In 1370, on the death of his brother Tello, Lord of Biscay, Henry definitively incorporated the Lordship of Biscay into the royal patrimony. In 1379 his son John of Trastámara acceded to the throne and, following in the centralizing wake of his predecessors, would create the Royal Council in 1385.

Since John of Gaunt, brother of the Black Prince and Duke of Lancaster, had married Constance, daughter of Peter, in 1371, in 1388 he claimed the Crown of Castile for his wife, the legitimate heiress according to the Cortes of Seville of 1361. He arrived at La Coruña with an army, took first that city and later Santiago de Compostela, Pontevedra and Vigo, and demanded that John hand the throne over to Constance.

But the latter did not accept, and proposed the marriage of his son the Infante Henry to Catherine, daughter of John of Gaunt and Constance. The proposal was accepted, they married in 1388, and simultaneously the title of Prince of Asturias was instituted, held for the first time by Henry and Catherine. This made it possible to bring the dynastic conflict to an end, by consolidating the House of Trastámara and establishing peace between England and Castile.

Relations with the Crown of Aragon

Painting depicting the entry of James I into Murcia on February 2, 1266, by Federico Mauricio Ramos.

During the reign of Henry III royal power was restored, displacing the most powerful nobility. In his last years he delegated part of the effective power to his brother Ferdinand of Antequera, who would be regent, together with Henry's wife Catherine of Lancaster, during the minority of his son, Prince John. After the Compromise of Caspe in 1412, the Regent Ferdinand left Castile, becoming King of Aragon.

On the death of his mother, John II came of age, at 14, and married his cousin María of Aragon. The young king entrusted the government to Álvaro de Luna, the most influential person at his court and an ally of the lesser nobility, the cities, the lower clergy and the Jews. This brought the antipathy of the Castilian high nobility and of the Infantes of Aragon, which provoked the war between Castile and Aragon between 1429 and 1430. Álvaro de Luna won the war and expelled the Infantes.

Second succession conflict

Henry IV tried unsuccessfully to restore peace with the nobility, broken by his father. When his second wife, Joan of Portugal, gave birth to Princess Joanna, she was attributed to a supposed adulterous relationship of the Queen with Beltrán de la Cueva, one of the Monarch's favorites.

The King, besieged by the revolts and demands of the nobles, had to sign a treaty by which he named his brother Alfonso heir, leaving Joanna out of the succession. After the latter's death in an accident, Henry IV signed with his half-sister Isabella the Treaty of the Bulls of Guisando, in which he named her heiress on condition that she marry the Prince chosen by Henry.

The Catholic Monarchs: union with the Crown of Aragon

In October 1469, Isabella and Ferdinand, heir prince of Aragon, married in secret in the Palace of the Vivero in Valladolid. This union resulted in the dynastic union of the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon in 1479 when Ferdinand acceded to the Aragonese crown, although it did not become effective until the reign of their grandson, Charles I. Isabella and Ferdinand were related by kinship and had married without papal approval, for which they were excommunicated. Later, Pope Alexander VI would grant them the title of Catholic Monarchs.

Because of the marriage of Isabella and Ferdinand, the King and Isabella's half-brother Henry IV considered broken the Treaty of the Bulls of Guisando, by which Isabella would accede to the throne of Castile on his death provided she had his approval to marry. Henry IV, moreover, wanted to ally the Castilian Crown with Portugal or France rather than with Aragon. For these reasons he declared his daughter Joanna la Beltraneja heiress to the throne in place of Isabella. When Henry IV died in 1474 a civil war began, lasting until 1479, over the succession to the throne between the supporters of Isabella and those of Joanna, in which Isabella's supporters were victorious.

Thus, after Isabella's victory in the Castilian civil war and Ferdinand's accession to the throne, the two crowns would be united under the same monarchs, but Castile and Aragon would remain separate administratively; each crown would keep its identity and laws, the Castilian Cortes would remain separate from the Aragonese, and the only common institution would be the Inquisition. Despite their titles of Monarchs of Castile, of León, of Aragon and of Sicily, Ferdinand and Isabella each reigned more in the affairs of their respective Crowns, although they also made common decisions. The central position of the Crown of Castile, its greater extent (3 times the Aragonese territory) and population (4.3 million as against roughly 1 million in the Crown of Aragon) would make it take the dominant role in the union.

The Castilian aristocracy was powerful thanks to the Reconquista (as Henry IV had been able to see). The monarchs needed to impose themselves on the nobles and the clergy. In 1476 the Council of the Brotherhood was founded, which would be known as the Santa Hermandad. In addition, measures were taken against the nobility: feudal castles were destroyed, private wars were prohibited and the power of the adelantados was reduced. The monarchy incorporated the military orders under the Council of the Orders in 1495, royal power in justice was strengthened at the expense of the feudal lords, and the Audiencia became the supreme body in judicial matters. Royal power also sought greater control over the cities: thus at the Cortes of Toledo in 1480 the corregidores were created to supervise the city councils. In the religious sphere the religious orders were reformed and uniformity was sought. Pressure was applied for the conversion of the Jews, and in some cases they were persecuted by the Inquisition. Finally in 1492, for those who were not converts, their expulsion was decided, it being estimated that some 50,000 to 70,000 people had to leave the Crown of Castile. From 1502 the conversion of the Muslim population was also sought.

Between 1478 and 1496 the islands of Gran Canaria, La Palma and Tenerife were conquered. On January 2, 1492 the monarchs entered the Alhambra of Granada, thereby bringing the Reconquista to an end. The important figure of Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba (nicknamed the Great Captain) would appear. In 1492 Christopher Columbus discovered the West Indies, and in 1497 Melilla was taken. After the taking of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada for the Crown of Castile, foreign policy would turn toward the Mediterranean. Castile would aid Aragon with its armies in its problems with France, which would culminate in the recovery of Naples in 1504 for the Crown of Aragon. Later, in that same year, Queen Isabella died.

16th–17th centuries: from Empire to crisis

Castilian international trade of the period. Consulate of the Sea and Brotherhood of the Marshes. Later these trade routes were overshadowed by the trade of the Casa de la Contratación de Indias.

Regency period

Isabella had excluded her husband from the succession to the Crown of Castile, which passed into the hands of her daughter Joanna (married to Philip of Austria, nicknamed the Handsome). But Isabella knew of the illness from which her daughter suffered (for which she was known as Joanna the Mad) and named Ferdinand regent in case Joanna should be unwilling or unable to attend to their government. In the Concord of Salamanca (1505), the joint government of Philip, Ferdinand and Joanna herself was agreed upon. However, the poor relations between him (supported by the Castilian nobility) and his father-in-law, King Ferdinand the Catholic, led the latter to renounce power in Castile to avoid an armed confrontation. By the Concord of Villafáfila (1506), Ferdinand withdrew to Aragon and Philip was proclaimed King of Castile. In 1506 Philip I died and Ferdinand the Catholic returned once again to the regency.

Ferdinand continued the policy of expansion of both crowns, Castile toward the Atlantic and Aragon toward the Mediterranean. In 1508 the Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera was conquered for Castile; between 1509 and 1511 Oran, Bugía and Tripoli were conquered and Algiers was subjugated. In 1515 Mazalquivir was taken. On the death of Gaston of Foix, his succession rights to the Kingdom of Navarre passed into the hands of Germaine of Foix, Ferdinand's wife. Using these alleged succession rights, the Treaty of Blois signed by the monarchs of Navarre with France in 1512, and with the help of the Navarrese Beaumonteses, Ferdinand occupied the Kingdom of Navarre with Castilian troops, some 20,000 well-equipped soldiers under the command of the Duke of Alba, and Ferdinand also had the support of his son, the Archbishop of Zaragoza, with more than 3,000 men who would besiege Tudela, where there was strong resistance. The Cortes of Aragon and the city of Zaragoza itself did not give him authorization until early September, after the proclamation of the papal bull Pastor Ille Caelestis, and when few pockets of resistance remained in the Kingdom. In 1513, Ferdinand was recognized as King of Navarre by the Navarrese Cortes (attended only by Beaumonteses). Between 1512 and 1515 Navarre formed part of the Crown of Aragon.^[14] Finally, in 1515, at the Cortes of Castile assembled in Burgos, the annexation of the territory was declared. No Navarrese attended this meeting.^[15]

On Ferdinand's death in 1516, Cardinal Gonzalo Jiménez de Cisneros succeeded him as Regent until the two crowns passed to his grandson, son of Joanna and Philip: the future Charles I.

Charles I

*The Comuneros Padilla, Bravo and Maldonado on the Scaffold*, by Antonio Gisbert Pérez. 1860. (Congress of Deputies of Spain, Madrid).

Charles I received the Crown of Castile, that of Aragon and the Empire owing to a combination of dynastic marriages and premature deaths.

From his father Philip (died 1506) he inherited the Netherlands.
On the death of Ferdinand the Catholic (his grandfather) he received the Crown of Aragon in 1517 and also that of Castile (together with America), since his mother (Joanna I of Castile) was incapacitated to govern.
And as grandson of Maximilian, he received in 1519 the Holy Roman Empire under the name of Charles V.

Charles I was not well received in Castile. Contributing to this was the fact that he was a foreign King (born in Ghent), and that even before his arrival in Castile he granted important offices to Flemings and Castilian money was used to finance his court. The Castilian nobility and the cities were close to an uprising to defend their rights. Many Castilians preferred his younger brother Ferdinand (raised in Castile), and indeed the Council of Castile opposed the idea of Charles as King of Castile.

At the Castilian Cortes in Valladolid in 1518, a Walloon (Jean de Sauvage) was named president. This provoked angry protests in the Cortes, which rejected the presence of foreigners in their deliberations. Despite threats, the Cortes (led by Juan de Zumel, representative for Burgos) held firm and obtained the King's oath to respect the laws of Castile, to remove foreigners from important posts and to learn to speak Castilian. Charles, after his oath, obtained a subsidy of 600,000 ducats.

Charles I was aware that he had many chances of becoming Emperor and needed to impose himself in the Crown of Castile and gain access to its wealth for his imperial dream. Castile was one of the most dynamic, rich and advanced territories of 16th century Europe, and it began to realize that it could become submerged in an empire. This, together with Charles's breaking of his promise, made hostility toward the new king increase. In 1520 the Cortes were convened in Toledo for another subsidy (the servicio), which the Cortes rejected. They were convened again in Santiago with the same result. Finally they were convened in La Coruña; a significant number of representatives were bribed, others were not allowed entry, and he succeeded in having the servicio approved. The representatives who voted in favor were attacked by the Castilian people and their houses burned. The Cortes would not be the only opposition Charles would encounter: on leaving Castile in 1520, leaving as Regent his former tutor, Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht, the War of the Communities of Castile broke out. The comuneros were defeated at Villalar a year later (1521). After the defeat, the Cortes were reduced to a mere consultative body.^{[citation needed]}

The war in Navarre recurred several times in the years following the death of Ferdinand the Catholic, owing to the attempts at reconquest by the Navarrese monarchs, aided by the Kingdom of France. One of them came as soon as Charles I acceded to the throne, in 1516, and was quickly cut short. The most important took place in 1521, when in addition to the entry of troops from the north there was support from the Navarrese population (including the Beaumontese), with a generalized uprising that led to the expulsion of the Castilian army from the whole of Navarrese territory. Subsequently Charles I sent a well-equipped army of 30,000 men which, in a short time and after the bloody Battle of Noáin, returned control of most of the Navarrese territory to Castile. Two later centers of resistance still remained, at the Castle of Maya in 1522 and at that of Fuenterrabía in 1524, as well as in Lower Navarre, where Castilian incursions were unstable. Finally, in 1528, Charles I withdrew from the territory of Lower Navarre, being unable to defend it effectively, abandoning his claims to it, and without any formal treaty existing between the monarchs of Navarre and Charles I.

Imperial policy of Philip II

Colegio de San Gregorio, where the Junta of Valladolid took place, and the Pimentel Palace, birthplace of Philip II.

Philip II followed the same policy as Charles I. But unlike his father, he made Castile the center of his empire, centralizing its administration in Madrid. The rest of the states maintained their autonomy, governed by Viceroys.

From Charles I onward the fiscal burden of the empire fell mainly on Castile, and under Philip II it quadrupled. During his reign, in addition to raising the existing taxes, he introduced new ones, among them the excusado in 1567. That same year Philip II ordered the proclamation of the Pragmática. This edict restricted the religious, linguistic and cultural freedoms of the Morisco population, and provoked the Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1568–1571), which John of Austria put down militarily.

Castile entered a recession in 1575, which led to a suspension of payments (the third of his reign). In 1590 the Cortes approved the Servicio de Millones, a new tax levied on foodstuffs. This ended up ruining the Castilian cities and eliminated their weak attempts at industrialization. In 1596 there was a new suspension of payments.

Reign of the minor Habsburgs

In the preceding reigns, offices in the institutions of the kingdoms were filled with educated people; Philip II's administrators usually came from the universities of Alcalá and Salamanca. From Philip III onward the nobles once again imposed their status in order to govern, since it was necessary to demonstrate purity of blood. Religious persecution led Philip III in 1609 to decree the Expulsion of the Moriscos.

Faced with the collapse of the Castilian treasury in maintaining the hegemony of the Spanish Empire during the reign of Philip IV, the Count-Duke of Olivares, favorite of the King from 1621 to 1643, attempted to carry out a series of reforms. Among these was the Union of Arms, an attempt to have each territory within the Hispanic Monarchy contribute to the maintenance of the army in proportion to its population, in order thus to relieve the fiscal burden borne by Castile; but this aim not only failed to prosper, it also weakened the monarchy of Philip IV. The Count-Duke lost royal favor and was succeeded by his nephew Luis de Haro as favorite of Philip IV between 1659 and 1665. His objective was to end the internal conflicts raised by his predecessor (the uprisings of Portugal, Catalonia and Andalusia) and to achieve peace in Europe.

On the death of Philip IV in 1665, and given the inability of Charles II to govern, there followed economic lethargy and power struggles among the various favorites. In 1668 the Hispanic Monarchy accepted the independence of Portugal in the Treaty of Lisbon (1668); simultaneously the incorporation into Castile of Ceuta, which had chosen not to join the uprising and to remain loyal to Philip IV, became effective. The death of Charles II in 1700 without descendants provoked the War of the Spanish Succession.

Minor territorial entities of the Crown of Castile

In the Iberian Peninsula

In Africa

Overseas

References

↑ Unión definitiva de Castilla y León
↑ Martínez Díez 2007, pp. 80-81 and 135-151.
↑ Martínez Díez 2007, p. 197.
↑ Sánchez Candeira 1999, pp. 113–114.
↑ Martínez Díez 2007, pp. 197, 199–200.
↑ Martínez Díez 2007, p. 202.
↑ ^7.0 ^7.1 Sánchez Candeira 1999, p. 230.
↑ Martínez Díez 2003, p. 31.
↑ Martínez Díez 2003, p. 33.
↑ Martínez Díez 2003, p. 38.
↑ Martínez Díez 2003, p. 43.
↑ Títulos de reyes europeos
↑ Julio Valdeón (1981). "La Baja Edad Media". Historia 16 (in español): 52–54.
↑ Spain under the Habsburgs. Volume one: From Nation State to World Empire. John Lynch.
↑ Tomás Urzainqui Mina. "Navarra Estado europeo" p. 264; ISBN 84-7681-397-X

Bibliography

Martínez Díez, Gonzalo (2003). Alfonso VI. Señor del Cid, conquistador de Toledo (in español). Madrid: Temas de Hoy. ISBN 978-84-8460-251-4.
Martínez Díez, Gonzalo (2007). Sancho III el Mayor Rey de Pamplona, Rex Ibericus (in español). Madrid: Marcial Pons Historia. ISBN 978-84-96467-47-7.
Sánchez Candeira, Alfonso (1999). Rosa Montero Tejada (edition sponsored by Fundación BBV, Fundación Ramón Areces, Caja Madrid Fundación) (ed.). Castilla y León en el siglo X, estudio del reinado de Fernando I (in español). Madrid: Real Academia de la Historia. ISBN 978-84-8951241-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)

[1] Burgos and Toledo disputed precedence in the Cortes. Primacy of the Diocese of Toledo. Valladolid was the judicial capital from 1371 (Royal Chancery of Valladolid) until the creation of a second Chancery in Granada in 1505.

[2] As capital of the Hispanic Monarchy.

[superficie-3] 3.0 ^3.1 Overseas territories are not included.

[4] Unión definitiva de Castilla y León

[FOOTNOTEMartínez_Díez200780-81_and_135-151-5] Martínez Díez 2007, pp. 80-81 and 135-151.

[FOOTNOTEMartínez_Díez2007197-6] Martínez Díez 2007, p. 197.

[FOOTNOTESánchez_Candeira1999113–114-7] Sánchez Candeira 1999, pp. 113–114.

[FOOTNOTEMartínez_Díez2007197,_199–200-8] Martínez Díez 2007, pp. 197, 199–200.

[FOOTNOTEMartínez_Díez2007202-9] Martínez Díez 2007, p. 202.

[FOOTNOTESánchez_Candeira1999230-10] 7.0 ^7.1 Sánchez Candeira 1999, p. 230.

[FOOTNOTEMartínez_Díez200331-11] Martínez Díez 2003, p. 31.

[FOOTNOTEMartínez_Díez200333-12] Martínez Díez 2003, p. 33.

[FOOTNOTEMartínez_Díez200338-13] Martínez Díez 2003, p. 38.

[FOOTNOTEMartínez_Díez200343-14] Martínez Díez 2003, p. 43.

[15] Títulos de reyes europeos

[16] Julio Valdeón (1981). "La Baja Edad Media". Historia 16 (in español): 52–54.

[17] Spain under the Habsburgs. Volume one: From Nation State to World Empire. John Lynch.

[18] Tomás Urzainqui Mina. "Navarra Estado europeo" p. 264; ISBN 84-7681-397-X

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