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Pedro de Alvarado
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Pedro de Alvarado y Contreras (Badajoz, Extremadura, Kingdom of Castile, 1485 – Guadalajara, Kingdom of Nueva Galicia, Viceroyalty of New Spain, July 4, 1541), known by the nickname Tonatiuh, which means the Sun in the Mexica language,[1][2] was a Spanish conquistador, Knight of the Order of Santiago, Adelantado, Governor and Captain general of the Kingdom of Guatemala.
Pedro de Alvarado took part in the conquest of Cuba, in Juan de Grijalva's exploration of the Gulf of Mexico and the coasts of Yucatán, and in the conquest of the Mexica tlatoanate led by Hernán Cortés, as well as in the conquest of the Maya area across a large part of Central America (Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador), and he could also have been the conqueror of Peru, had it not been for his renunciation in favor of the Adelantado Diego de Almagro.
Origin and family
He was born in Badajoz, Extremadura, c. 1485, into a family belonging to the old Castilian nobility of arms. He was the son of General Don Pedro Gómez de Alvarado y Messía de Sandoval, general of the frontier with Portugal, maestresala of the King Henry IV, Alcalde of Montánchez, one of the Thirteen knights of the Order of Santiago and its commander in Lobón, Puebla, Montijo and Cubillana, and of Doña Leonor de Contreras Carvajal, herself the daughter of Don Gonzalo de Contreras Carvajal and Doña Isabel de Trejo y Ulloa (daughter of the 7th Lords of Grimaldo, Almogrague and La Corchuera).
His paternal grandfather, the Cantabrian Don Juan de Alvarado y Dávila-Bracamonte, alcaide of Albuquerque, knight and commander of Hornachos in the Order of Santiago, was in turn the son of Don Garcí Sánchez de Alvarado or "del Varado", Lord of the Casa Fuerte del Varado in Secadura, corregidor of Córdoba in the time of John II of Castile, remembered as one of the knights who entered with Fernán Álvarez de Toledo in the taking of the Vega de Granada in 1435,[3] and of his wife, Doña Leonor de Bracamonte, born in the Palace of Bracamonte, as she was the daughter of its builders, the Marshal of Castile Don Álvaro Dávila, Lord of Peñaranda and of Fuente el Sol, chief chamberlain of the Infante Don Ferdinand of Aragon, and of his wife Doña Juana de Bracamonte y Mendoza, daughter of the celebrated Robert de Bracquemont, called "mosén Rubí de Bracamonte", Admiral of France[4] and of Castile, Captain of the papal guard of the anti-pope Benedict XIII, and of his first wife Doña Inés de Mendoza y Ayala (herself the daughter of Don Pedro González de Mendoza, 9th Lord of the House of Mendoza, of Hita and Buitrago, regent and captain general of the Kingdom of Castile, chief steward of King Henry II of Castile, tutor of Prince Don John, and of Doña Aldonza de Ayala, sister of the poet Pero López de Ayala, chief chancellor of Castile).
All the brothers emigrated to the newly discovered Indies, where they met with varied luck and fortune. Some of them also played a leading role in the Spanish conquest of America, most notably Jorge de Alvarado, Gómez de Alvarado y Contreras and Gonzalo de Alvarado.
Arrival in America and conquest of Cuba (1509–1511)
In 1512, at the age of 27, he landed on Hispaniola together with his brothers Gonzalo, Jorge, Gómez, Hernando and Juan, who arrived on the island as part of the retinue of the Viceroy Diego Columbus, eldest son of Christopher Columbus.[5] A year later, under the orders of his relative Diego Velázquez, he took part in the conquest of Cuba.
Grijalva expedition (1518)
In 1518 he accompanied Juan de Grijalva as Captain of a ship on his voyage of exploration along the coasts of Yucatán and the Gulf of Mexico, during which Cozumel was discovered. He was the first to navigate the Papaloapan River, which is why the town near the river's mouth was given the name "Alvarado".
Conquest of Mexico (1519–1521)
Several Alvarado brothers joined Cortés at the port of Trinidad when he was beginning his voyage, among them Jorge, Gonzalo and Gómez, and Juan; Pedro was the first Captain of Hernán Cortés during the conquest of Mexico.
He took part in the battle fought against the Tlaxcaltecs, led mainly by Xicotencatl. Once the Spanish conquistadors had won and agreed a new alliance with the Tlaxcaltecs, as a sign of peace the latter gave women to the principal captains. One of them was Tecuelhuetzin, the very daughter of "Xicotencatl the Elder", who was baptized as Doña Luisa and was intended for Hernán Cortés, who ceded her to Pedro de Alvarado. While still unmarried, Pedro de Alvarado had a son with Doña Luisa, whom he baptized with his own name, and a daughter whom he baptized with the name Leonor. Leonor married Francisco de la Cueva, cousin of the Duke of Alburquerque.[6]
Together with Bernardino Vázquez de Tapia he carried out an advance reconnaissance toward the surroundings of Tenochtitlan in order to observe and determine the best route; Vázquez de Tapia fell ill with fever on the way and Alvarado had to complete the mission, and both returned to Cholula to report the details to Cortés. It was then that the natives gave him the nickname Tonatiuh.[7]
The massacre of the Templo Mayor
In 1520, in the absence of Cortés, who had gone to meet Pánfilo de Narváez, Pedro de Alvarado, who had been left in command, ordered the massacre in the courtyard of the Templo Mayor that preceded the defeat of the Spaniards known as the Noche Triste. Rebuked by Cortés, who was forced to return hastily to Tenochtitlan to relieve him, he argued that the Aztecs were preparing human sacrifices for the feast of Tóxcatl (the fifth of the eighteen months of the Mexica calendar), breaking their promise not to do so, and that the feast was being used to prepare a trap to attack the Spaniards.
From the Spanish perspective, Bernal Díaz del Castillo justifies the attack against the Mexica nobility in the Templo Mayor, since, according to what he had learned, the Mexica had resolved to murder Pedro de Alvarado, who, as has been said, had been left in charge of the Spanish troops in Mexico-Tenochtitlan. The murder was to be carried out in the context of the celebration of Tóxcatl. To this must be added the displeasure of the Spaniards at the celebration of a rite they considered pagan, which involved the removal of the image of the Virgin Mary and the Cross that the Spaniards had placed in the Temple of Huitzilopochtli, for the purpose of the native celebration.
Many sources agree in denouncing that Alvarado ordered, without prior warning, an attack on the dancers at the feast, murdering unarmed people. The Aztec testimonies collected by Fray Bernardino de Sahagún describe a cruel slaughter.[citation needed] This event provoked a strong reaction from the citizens, who feared greater barbarities, and the conflict turned into an outright pitched battle with considerable losses for the Castilian troops.
Alvarado's Leap
During the flight from Tenochtitlan he is credited with having saved his life, despite being surrounded by enemies, by leaping across a canal supported on his lance, which he had driven into the mud; the feat has taken his name, "Alvarado's Leap" (Salto de Alvarado), which is also the name of a central street in Mexico City (Puente de Alvarado) located in the area where the event may have occurred.
It could be cited as a precedent of the pole vault, just as Pheidippides is for the marathon, but the leap very probably never took place: the account comes from Francisco López de Gómara, who was not an eyewitness, and it is denied very emphatically by Bernal Díaz del Castillo (although he was not there that day, since he was under the orders of Cortés, fighting Pánfilo de Narváez), who puts forward forceful arguments: no witness would have noticed the leap, occupied as they were in saving their lives; the depth of the water and the width of the canal crossed rule out the feasibility of the feat; and, finally, Bernal himself did not hear anyone mention the leap until long after the conquest, on the occasion of the publication of some laudatory pamphlets for Alvarado.[citation needed]
However, the story may have taken shape and been attributed to Pedro on that occasion, starting from a peculiar skill of his or of one of his brothers known to the rest of the troops, who must have seen them practicing their dexterity or playing at it; since all of them were members of a family originating from eastern Cantabria, where to this day the so-called salto pasiego is practiced—formerly more common and used by both men and women from a very young age—which the Alvarados must have learned within the family in Extremadura or while visiting relatives in Cantabria during their upbringing.
Conquest of Guatemala and El Salvador and San Pedro Sula (1521–1527)
After the taking of Tenochtitlan in 1521, on December 6, 1523, Cortés commissioned him for further expeditions to the south, accompanied by a military force of some three hundred soldiers, among them one hundred and twenty arquebusiers and crossbowmen, one hundred and thirty-five horsemen, four guns and plenty of gunpowder, in addition to some one thousand Tlaxcaltec, Cholultec and Mexica auxiliary Indians.
When Pedro de Alvarado entered the region, he found a series of kingdoms and lordships that possessed reasonably developed social, political and economic structures, the most prominent of which were the kingdoms of the Quichés, Cakchiquels, Zutuhils, Mams and Pipils, who resisted the conqueror and had to be subdued separately. The aims pursued by Cortés were to conquer the regions of the isthmus, to check the expansion of other conquistadors coming from Nicaragua, and to search for the longed-for passage between the two oceans, a task which, as Cortés confesses, "is the thing I most wish to come upon in this world, for the great service" the Emperor would receive "from it".
Alvarado led his troops to the southern coast of Mexico, where he conquered the coastal region of Soconusco and, in the first months of 1524, subdued by force the powerful kingdom of the Quichés, after killing in battle the native war leader Tecún-Uman. He then allied himself with the Cakchiquels, declared enemies of the former, and with their help conquered the Zutuhils and put an end to the resistance of the Quichés. He then entered the eastern regions of Guatemala, fought some skirmishes with the Xincas and other tribes that resisted him, and on June 6 burst into present-day El Salvador and put an end, not without hard fighting, to the kingdom of the Pipils. Alvarado relates that on that expedition: "they shot me with an arrow that went through my leg, from which wound I was left lame, so that one leg was left four fingers shorter than the other".
After his return to Guatemala, on July 25, 1524, he ordered the founding of the first colonial capital of Guatemala: Santiago de los Caballeros, initially at Iximche (Tecpán), later refounded in 1527 in the Valley of Almolonga (today the neighborhood of San Miguel Escobar in Ciudad Vieja, Sacatepéquez) after a native revolt.
In 1525 he ordered Gonzalo de Alvarado to found a town with the name of San Salvador in the Lordship of Cuzcatlan, in order to dominate the natives of those lands. Both settlements came to have such importance in their respective jurisdictional provinces that they ended up becoming the capitals of the republics of Guatemala and El Salvador, respectively, although neither is on its original site today.
In 1527 he traveled to Spain and met with Charles V. This was his moment of greatest glory, as he received from the Emperor the appointments of Governor, Captain General and Adelantado of Guatemala, more than Cortés would ever obtain for New Spain. However, on his return to America in 1529, the Governor of New Spain imprisoned him and put him on trial; he was only able to free himself from captivity through the intervention of Cortés.
Despite the apocryphal historical importance of Pedro de Alvarado in the conquest of Central America, it is now well established (largely thanks to research deriving from the restoration of the Lienzo de Quauhquechollan) that the leading role in that conquest was in truth played by his brother Jorge de Alvarado.
Failed attempt to intervene in the conquest of the Incas (1534)
News of the riches of the Incas and of the conquest undertaken by Francisco Pizarro reached Alvarado's ears in Guatemala. He requested and obtained permission from the King of Spain to make discoveries and conquests in the lands of the Quito provinces of the Inca Empire that lay outside the limits assigned to Francisco Pizarro.
He built his fleet in the South Pacific, where he founded the Port of Iztapa (in Guatemala). At the beginning of 1534 he set sail with a fleet of eight ships, on which embarked 500 well-armed infantrymen, 227 horses and a number of natives of Guatemala.
He spent the enormous sum of one hundred thousand pesos of gold in building a powerful armada of twelve ships, well supplied with arms, with 450 well-armed infantrymen, 227 horses and a good number of natives, which left a large part of Guatemala empty of Spaniards and entailed great sacrifices for the native population. On January 23, 1534, he put to sea, and after thirty-three days of hard sailing he landed at the bay of Caráquez; he then went on to Charapotó, where he founded the Villa Hermosa de San Mateo de Charapotó; from there to Jipijapa, to Paján and to the Daule River. He turned back again toward the forests of Paján, where he halted for some time. His forces advanced in the south as far as well beyond Chonana, and in the north they went down so far that they reached the territory of Nono, in the present-day Pichincha Province, a few kilometers from Quito.
From Nono, retracing many leagues, they returned to the swampy forests of Chimbo in the western region, from where, the whole expedition now reunited, they began to climb the Andes mountain range until they emerged on the heights of Ambato. Since Alvarado wandered lost in the coastal provinces during the months of February, March and April, he suffered the hardships of the winter rains, when on the coast the plains and all the ground in general turn into impassable floodlands and swamps; and coming out onto the inter-Andean plateau in August, he crossed the mountain range precisely at the time of the strongest winds and the heaviest snowfalls.
Pedro de Alvarado reached the plains of Ambato, in present-day Ecuador, with a thoroughly weakened army, since it had spent many months enduring the harshness of the coastal jungle, in which they had become lost because the native guides they had held by force managed to escape. For this reason, they were in no condition to confront Diego de Almagro and Sebastián de Belalcazár and preferred to reach an amicable settlement on August 26, 1534, whereby Pedro de Alvarado would receive compensation for the expenses he had incurred on such an ill-fated expedition and, in exchange, Diego de Almagro and Gonzalo Pizarro obtained from Pedro de Alvarado the ships, horses and men who wished to stay.
Pedro de Alvarado finally returned to Guatemala, where he found himself facing a serious juicio de residencia and a judge sent by the Audiencia of Mexico, Alonso de Maldonado, who took over the government and left Alvarado immersed in a judicial proceeding. Francisco López de Gómara, in his Historia General de las Indias, puts the compensation at one hundred thousand pesos of gold, which were paid, in keeping with Almagro's word.
Poor reception in Ecuador-Quito
The minutes of the colonial Cabildo of San Francisco de Quito reveal emphatically the poor reception and general discontent that Pedro de Alvarado provoked in the conquering enterprises headed by Diego de Almagro, which were linked to the expeditions into the present-day territories of continental Ecuador or of the then Kingdom of Quito, in accordance with the provisions issued by Francisco Pizarro as Governor of New Castile.
Here are some of the first original documents of the colonial Cabildo of Quito, in which are expressed the "opinions" to which Marshal Diego de Almagro himself had to resort in order to negotiate with Alvarado and not encourage the demonstrable and unpopular reception that his stay in the lands of the north of Pirú gave rise to, as soon as his arrival from Guatemala was heard of. The municipal document relates the following, with the respective answer of the members of the cabildo:
Concerning what was to be done with Don Pedro de Alvarado
Opinion that Don Diego de Almagro asked of those of the cabildo (of Quito) as to whether he should resist the Adelantado Don Pedro de Alvarado, or let him pass or remain in this land.
Wednesday, the 19th day of the said month (of August of MDXXXIII 1534).
The said lords of justice and regidores entered their cabildo, namely Diego de Tapia and Gonzalo Farfán, alcaldes, and Cristóbal de Ayala and Martín Alonso de Ángulo and Fernando Gamarra and Fernando de Prado and Marcos Varela and Lope Ortiz, regidores, to attend to matters fitting to the service of God our Lord and of His Majesty and to the good and benefit of this said city, its citizens and inhabitants, as they are accustomed to do; and being together in the said cabildo, there came to it the magnificent lord Don Diego de Almagro, Marshal in these kingdoms of New Castile for His Majesty, and lieutenant governor and captain general in them for the very magnificent lord Comendador Don Francisco Pizarro, Adelantado and Governor and Captain General of these said kingdoms, and he told the said lords of justice and regidores that they well know and are aware of the damages and scandals that the Adelantado Don Pedro de Alvarado has caused with his coming and stay in this land, and of the ill intent he brings, and how he has said and made public that he is to cross and travel through all this governorship against the will of its justice; therefore he asks the said lords of justice and regidores to give him their opinion of what should be done, so that what befits the service of His Majesty and the good of this land may best be achieved; and whether it would be well to hinder and resist him so that he does not pass or travel through this said governorship, in order to avoid the damages he has done and could do traveling through it, or whether he should let him pass and go on ahead with some people, leaving this city settled as it is now or after he has passed; and what people on foot and on horseback it would be well to leave in this said city for its guard and sustenance and good keeping; and that in all that he should do they give him the said opinion.
Answer of the cabildo:
Answer of the alcalde Tapia
And then the said Diego de Tapia, alcalde, said that it seems to him that the said lord Marshal should not leave this province but stay in it with the people he presently has, because if he were to leave or leave behind the said people, the said Alvarado, with the strength of people he brings, could come to this city and, finding it abandoned by the said lord Marshal, could stay in it and in all the land without anyone being able to check him, and be refitting his people in it; and it could be that in the meantime the people he says he is expecting would come to him, with whom, and with those he presently has, and with those of whom he would draw to his purpose among those who remained in this city if the said lord Marshal left and the said Alvarado came, he would finish conquering the land and would obtain the great sum of gold that there is in it, as is well known, which he would divide among his people in such a way that he would have them all very content to do whatever he commanded them; and besides this, the justice and municipal government that remained in this city would not be capable of sustaining themselves, because the said Alvarado would draw to himself the lords and caciques of these provinces, and especially this lord whom the said Marshal holds in his power, whom, together with the rest, he would make to understand that the said lord Marshal is fleeing from him and that there is no other captain or lord of these parts but himself; and he would find a way so that no provisions or food or anything else were brought to this city, so that of necessity all those who remained in this city would be forced to go and place themselves under his hand.
And besides this, it is well known that a great part of the people that the said Alvarado presently has is very discontented with him, and they have said and made public that, as soon as they see the place and time, many of them would come to this said city where the said lord Marshal is; and likewise the said Alvarado could send people here to settle the provinces of Puerto Viejo, and having them settled he could gather there all the people who came to these parts and those whom the said lord Governor was bringing; all of which would cease if the said lord Marshal did not leave the land, because, he being in it with the power he holds to govern it, and having, as he has, this city settled, and with the goodwill of the people whom the said Alvarado brings with him, and with the many native friends of the land, the said lord Marshal, in the name of His Majesty, can bar the way to the said Alvarado and command him what he sees fit for the service of His Majesty and the good of these parts; and that this he gave and gives as his opinion, and he signed it with his name. Diego de Tapia.
Answer of the alcalde Gonzalo Farfán.
The said Gonzalo Farfán, aforementioned alcalde, said that it seems to him that the said lord Marshal should go on ahead and gather the people who are in San Miguel, in order to turn back with them on the road to wherever he should meet the said Alvarado, to defend and resist him so that he does no harm in the land; because if he went ahead he could gather the people and regroup, and remove and prevent any relief of people from reaching the said Alvarado, whether by way of Puerto Viejo or by any other route; and that it seems to him that his staying here bears no fruit, because he has no possibility of resisting or attacking or hindering the said Alvarado in anything; and that this he gave and gives as his opinion. Gonzalo Farfán.
Answer
The said Cristóbal de Ayala, regidor, said that it seems to him that the said lord Marshal should do what the said Gonzalo Farfán, alcalde, says, provided that His Grace leaves the people he deems necessary for the guard and protection of this city, and that this he gives as his opinion.
Xrispoual de Ayala (Cristóbal de Ayala)
And then the said Hernando de Gamarra and Lope Ortiz and Marcos Barela and Martín Alonso de Ángulo and Hernando de Prado, regidores, said that they are of the opinion of what the said Gonzalo Farfán said, and that this is what it seems to them the said lord Marshal should do, and they signed it.
Marcos Varela
Martyn Alonso de Ángulo
Lope Ortiz
Hernando de Gamarra
Hernando de Prado.
Planned expedition to the Moluccas (1539–1540)
After Queen Joanna I of Castile issued a real cédula in 1533 granting Francisco de Montejo the governorship of the territory stretching from the Cupilco River in Tabasco to the Ulúa River in Hibueras, Montejo moved to Central America to carry out military campaigns against the Lencas, but Pedro de Alvarado had also been sent for the same purpose by the Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza y Pacheco. Because of the conflict of interests, in 1539 an exchange was made of the territory of Chiapas, which belonged to Alvarado, for the territory of Hibueras; in view of this, Montejo moved to Ciudad Real de Chiapa.[8]
Alvarado did not endure inactivity as Governor of Guatemala and Honduras for long before requesting and obtaining from the Crown another commission of exploration, this time to the elusive Spice Islands. On this occasion he assembled a considerable armada of twelve ships with seven hundred men on foot and on horseback, abundant supplies and arms, several clergymen and hundreds of Indian servants. Anchors, arms, artillery and other iron implements had to be transported from the distant port of Veracruz, on the Atlantic, to the Salvadoran port of Acajutla, on the Pacific. Alvarado spent the fabulous sum of two hundred thousand pesos of gold and was left heavily in debt: "I have spent everything I have in order to set out with this armada", he confessed.
In August 1540 the armada departed from Acajutla and, heading north, arrived at the port of La Purificación in Jalisco, when it was summoned by the Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza y Pacheco, who wished to take part in the enterprise. But first he would give Alvarado a military task that was to be his last: to put down the rebellion of the Caxcan and Chichimeca Indians that had broken out in Nueva Galicia (in what is today the State of Jalisco, Mexico).
Death at Nochistlán (1541)
In that last military action, sometimes known as the Mixtón War, Alvarado was run over by the horse of an inexperienced companion who was fleeing the counterattack of the Chichimeca Indians, who were entrenched on the Cerro del Mixtón (cat) and were commanded by Francisco Tenamaxtle, a baptized Caxcan who had risen in arms. It happened at Nochistlán, in the south of what is today the state of Zacatecas, which had already been granted the title of city with the name of Guadalajara, although the present layout of that city was moved to another site in later times, the old settlement recovering its original name.[9]
After a few days of agony, he died on July 4, 1541. His body was first buried in the church of Tiripetío, Michoacán, and moved in 1568 by his daughter, Leonor Alvarado Xicoténcatl, to a crypt of the Cathedral of San José of Santiago de Guatemala (today Antigua Guatemala), beside that of his wife, Beatriz de la Cueva, called la sinventura ("the luckless"), not without reason: she was widowed less than a year after succeeding her sister as Alvarado's wife, and then survived her husband by only another year.[10]
The body of the conquistador and founder of the city remains in that church, after the attempt to bury them in a monument erected in his memory failed due to popular pressure.[11]
After the death of Pedro de Alvarado in the Mixtón War, with the governorship of Hibueras left vacant, the Real Audiencia of Los Confines asked Francisco de Montejo to hold the office in Hibueras once again, between 1542 and 1544. Nevertheless, he gave up the appointment and the governorships of Tabasco and Chiapas, submitting to their respective juicios de residencia.
Ancestors
| No. | Ancestor |
|---|---|
| 1 | Pedro de Alvarado y Contreras |
| 2 | Diego Gómez de Alvarado y Messía de Sandoval, general of the frontier with Portugal |
| 3 | Leonor de Contreras y Gutiérrez de Trejo |
| 4 | Juan de Alvarado y Dávila-Bracamonte, commander of Hornachos |
| 5 | Catalina Messía de Sandoval |
| 6 | Gonzalo de Contreras y Carvajal |
| 7 | Isabel Gutiérrez de Trejo y Ulloa |
| 8 | Garci Sánchez de Alvarado or "el Varado", Lord of the Casa del Varado, corregidor of Córdoba |
| 9 | Leonor de Bracamonte |
| 10 | Diego González de Messia y Ossorio, Lord of Loriana |
| 11 | María de Sandoval Sotomayor, Lady of Valdetorres and Los Corros |
| 12 | Hernando de Contreras, "the Elder" |
| 13 | Sara de Carvajal Bejarano |
| 14 | Gutierre de Trejo y Ovando, 7th Lord of Grimaldo, Almofraque and Carchuelas |
| 15 | Violante Gutiérrez de la Cerda |
| 16 | Fernando Sánchez or Sánz del Varado, Lord of the Casa del Varado |
| 17 | María González de Aguiar |
| 18 | Álvaro Dávila, Marshal of Castile, Lord of Peñaranda and Fuente el Sol |
| 19 | Juana de Bracamonte y Mendoza |
| 20 | Garcí Messía Ossorio |
| 21 | María de Guzmán |
| 22 | Pedro de Sandoval |
| 23 | Juana de Sotomayor |
| 24 | Alvar García de Contreras |
| 26 | Alvar García de Bejarano or de Orellana, Lord of Orellana de la Sierra and of Carvajal la Nueva |
| 27 | Mencía de Carvajal-Vargas Villalobos-de la Cerda |
| 28 | Gonzalo Bermúdez de Trejo |
| 29 | María de Ovando |
| 30 | Fernán Gutiérrez de Valverde, 9th Lord of Castellanos |
| 31 | Mafalda Alfonso de la Cerda |
See also
- Alvarado family
- Battle of Acajutla
- Conquest of El Salvador
- Governors and captains general of Guatemala
- Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo
Notes and references
- ↑ DÍAZ DEL CASTILLO, B.: Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de Nueva España, Madrid, 1984. Vol. 2, pp. 447-448
- ↑ MUÑOZ CAMARGO D. : Historia de Tlaxcala, Madrid, 1986, pp. 197-198
- ↑ "Pagina nueva 1". www.euskalnet.net (in español). Retrieved 2021-05-12.
- ↑ "Mosén Rubí de Bracamonte | Real Academia de la Historia". dbe.rah.es (in español). Retrieved 2021-05-12.
- ↑ Vallejo García-Hevia, José María (2008). Juicio a un conquistador, Pedro de Avarado "su proceso de residencia en Guatemala (1536-1538)" (in español). Marcial Pons Historia. p. 1330. ISBN 9788496467644.
- ↑ Díaz del Castillo, Bernal (1568) Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España, (text on the cervantesvirtual website p. 266)
- ↑ Vázquez Chamorro, Germán (2003) "La conquista de Tenochtitlan" collection "Crónicas de América", compilation of the chroniclers J. Díaz, A. de Tapia, B. Vázquez, F. de Aguilar; "Relación de méritos y servicios" pp.121-147 Dastil, S.L. ISBN 84-492-0367-8
- ↑ Conquista y Colonización de Yucatán (1517-1550), Chamberlain, Robert S., prologue by Jorge Rubio Mañé. Translation by Álvaro Domínguez Peón, revised by Jorge Ignacio Rubio Mañé and Rafael Rodríguez Contreras. 2nd ed. Porrúa, Mexico, 1982 ISBN 968 432 734 X
- ↑ García Icazbalceta, Joaquín "Colección de documentos para la historia de México" "Carta de Gerónimo López al emperador 20 de octubre de 1541" text online Cervantes Virtual
- ↑ López de Gómara, Francisco (1552) "Historia general de las Indias" chap. CCIX and CCX text online Cervantes Virtual
- ↑ El conquistador “sangriento” no descansa en paz
Bibliography
- Barón Castro, Rodolfo; “Pedro de Alvarado”, Madrid 1943.
- González Villatoro, Gustavo; El testamento del Adelantado Don Pedro de Alvarado. El hombre y el mito, San José, C.R.: Promesa, 2007
External links
- Pedro de Alvarado at the Real Academia de la Historia
- Pedro de Alvarado on the Página de relación
- Pedro de Alvarado, Capitán de Hernán Cortés
- Lienzo de Quauhquechollan
- Profile at the NNDB
