Kingdom of Navarre

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For the stadium named «Reyno de Navarra» between 2005 and 2013, see El Sadar Stadium.
Kingdom of Navarre
1162–1841
Flag of Navarre
Flag
Coat of arms of Navarre
Coat of arms
The Kingdom of Pamplona under Sancho the Great (from 1029 to 1035)
The Kingdom of Pamplona under Sancho the Great (from 1029 to 1035)
StatusFormer kingdom
CapitalPamplona
Common languagesLatin, Navarrese Romance (in the south), Basque and Gascon (in the north)[1] and, after the conquest, Castilian in Upper Navarre and French in Lower Navarre.
Religion
Catholicism
GovernmentHereditary monarchy
King 
• 810/820–851
Íñigo Arista
• 1150–1194
Sancho VI
• 1833–1841
Isabella I
Historical eraMiddle Ages and Early Modern period
• Sancho VI styles himself Rex Navarre[2]
1162
1200
• Theobald I of Navarre, Count of Champagne and Brie, is named King. Three centuries in the orbit of the Kingdom of France begin
1234
• War of the Navarrería – the Capetian dynasty imposed a regime supervised from the Kingdom of France without respect for the usages and customs of the kingdom that the Navarrese nobility demanded. After the devastation of the Navarrería, it would not be repopulated again until the reign of the Capetian Monarch Charles I the Fair, in 1324, when the rebuilding of the dwellings was authorized and its inhabitants were granted the fuero of Jaca.
1270
• Joan I of Navarre, last Queen of the House of Champagne, marries King Philip IV of France. The Navarrese throne is united to the French one.
1284
• Joan II of Navarre, of the Capetian dynasty, married to Philip of Évreux, separates the Navarrese throne from the French one. The Salic law was not in force in Navarre, and she asserted her rights with the support of knights and representatives of the Navarrese towns.
1328
1512
1620
• Abolition of the Kingdom of Navarre (Lower Navarre)
1789[3]
16 August 1841
Area
Early Middle Ages[convert: invalid number]
Late Middle Ages[convert: invalid number]
Early Modern period11,716 km2 (4,524 sq mi)
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Kingdom of Pamplona
French constitutional monarchy
Foral Deputation of Navarre

The Kingdom of Navarre (in Basque: Nafarroako Erresuma) was one of the medieval kingdoms of Europe, located on both slopes of the western Pyrenees, but with most of its territory situated south of the Pyrenean range, in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. From 1162 it was the successor of the Kingdom of Pamplona, founded around the Navarrese capital in 824, according to some historians. After some early years of expansion and the subsequent territorial loss at the hands of Castile and Aragon, the Kingdom of Navarre stabilized with two distinct territories: Upper Navarre, south of the Pyrenees, where the capital and most of the population and resources were located, and Lower Navarre or Continental Navarre, north of the Pyrenean range. Between 1234 and 1512 it was linked to the Kingdom of France, and within its orbit, for several centuries through several dynasties (Champagne, Capetians, Évreux and Foix). On some occasions it was directly united to the French throne (as with the Capetians) between 1284 and 1328.

The end of the kingdom's independence came when Ferdinand the Catholic, and later his Burgundian grandson Charles I of Spain, carried out the military conquest between the years 1512 and 1528, with varying resistance. Several attempts to recover independence were made in the following years, and finally Charles I of Spain withdrew from Lower Navarre because it was difficult to control. As a result, this portion remained independent, keeping the Foix and Albret dynasties, until it became dynastically associated with the French Crown when its king, Henry III, ascended the French throne. Thus, the French monarchs styled themselves «kings of France and of Navarre». The union of the Kingdom of Navarre with France, purely dynastic, was made while always preserving its own institutions (thus, when Louis XVI convened the Estates General of France, Navarre did not formally send deputies to them, but to the King in person, independently and with its own Cuaderno de agravios [book of grievances]).[5] However, its distinct status within the Crown ended in 1789,[6] when it was abolished as a kingdom. On the other hand, peninsular Navarre or Upper Navarre became one more of the kingdoms and territories of the Crown of Castile and finally of the Hispanic Monarchy, a status it retained, governed by a Viceroy, until 1841, the date on which it came to be considered a Spanish «foral province» by means of what was later called the Paccionada Law, after the First Carlist War.

Overview

The Kingdom of Navarre arose from a small territory which, after a period of expansion, gradually diminished in extent and power, undermined by disputes among the ruling classes and by the conquests carried out by the neighboring kingdoms.

The Navarrese space was structured in a dual manner after the Muslim invasion of the peninsula in the 8th century. The north remained under Muslim rule for only a short time and was soon organized into a Christian nucleus, briefly subject to the Carolingian Empire and centered on the city of Pamplona, a town founded in Roman times as Pompaelo by Pompey on a pre-existing Vascon settlement, which some authors consider was already called «Iruña». Its first known leader was Íñigo Íñiguez —or Íñigo Arista («Enneco Cognomento Aresta»)—, the known head of what is considered the first Navarrese dynasty.[7]

In the south, a Hispano-Gothic noble native to the area (Casius) made a pact with the Muslim invaders and converted to Islam, thus managing to continue ruling that area of the Ebro Valley and extending this power among those of his lineage (the Banu Qasi), who for generations would assert their power in the south of the present-day Navarrese territory, allying with the Arista on various occasions against the central power of the Cordoban emirate, or against the expansionist zeal of the Carolingian Empire.

Navarre was one of the mountain nuclei of Christian resistance, encouraged by the Carolingian Franks, that formed in the Pyrenees against Islamic domination of the Iberian Peninsula, as in Aragon and Catalonia. It was initially known by the Frankish chroniclers as the Kingdom of the Pamplonese or Kingdom of Pamplona and a little later as the Kingdom of Pamplona-Nájera, in reference to the importance of the Riojan city in its organization.

In its stage of greatest territorial expansion, during the Middle Ages, the kingdom encompassed Atlantic territories and expanded beyond the Ebro river, toward territories located in the present-day autonomous communities of Aragon, Cantabria, Castile and León, La Rioja, the Basque Country and the French administrative regions of Aquitaine and Midi-Pyrénées, in the former provinces of Gascony and Occitania. The Basque capitals of Vitoria and San Sebastián were founded by the Navarrese King Sancho VI the Wise.

In its final stage, the kingdom ended up divided into:

  • Continental Navarre or Lower Navarre, which was dynastically united with France at the end of the 16th century, and in 1620 was integrated into the French Monarchy. It preserved its own institutions and privileges until 1789, at the time of the Revolution, with the French Bourbons bearing the title of kings de France et de Navarre. Nevertheless, during the French Restoration, Louis XVIII and Charles X recovered the title of kings of France and of Navarre during their reigns, in the first third of the 19th century.

The title of the heir Prince is Prince of Viana, which today is held by Leonor de Borbón y Ortiz, daughter and heir of King Felipe VI of Spain.

Historical evolution

Reign of Visigoths and Franks

For the period of the history of the Vascones contemporary with the formation and consolidation of the Visigothic kingdom in Hispania, there are few direct sources available on the events and the internal organization of the Vascones, and they are frequently contradictory.

Some historians suppose[8] that the Vascones were never subjugated by the Visigoths in their attempt to achieve the territorial unity of all the former Hispano-Roman provinces. Other authors, mainly in the 19th century, supposed that the Visigoths did manage to dominate the land of the Vascones. The scarcity of data has led to the creation of the legend of the Domuit vascones (he subdued the Vascones), a supposed phrase that would have been included in the chronicles of all the Gothic kings, but which appears to be an invention of the novelist Francisco Navarro Villoslada.[9]

The reflections of other specialists[10] recall the friendly attitude of the Vascones in the Roman period and the absence of significant conflicts during the Late Empire, highlighting the difficulty of explaining those confrontations without relying on the context of the assertion of autonomous power in Aquitaine and the rivalries between Franks and Visigoths.

Visigothic rule over Pamplona is a politically controversial subject. Despite its having been an episcopal see of the Visigothic church,[11] and there being Visigothic necropolises in Pamplona, there is some controversy over whether or not there was Visigothic rule over the city or simply coexistence. The archaeological and documentary evidence has received various interpretations, in some cases derived from the political controversy.[12][13]

Aquitaine

In the year 632 the Merovingian King Dagobert I led an expedition to Zaragoza in support of Sisenand, who had risen up against the authority of Suintila. A few years later, Dagobert gathered an army of Burgundians with which he unsuccessfully tried to occupy the entire "homeland of Vasconia" in 635. However, in 636, after a new military campaign, Dagobert obtained the oath of loyalty of the Vascones in the service of Aighina, Saxon duke of Bordeaux. After Dagobert's death, Merovingian power gradually weakened, giving way to a period of consolidation of an autonomous power known as the Duchy of Aquitaine within the Frankish kingdom, but for which reference sources are unknown until the grant to Felix, patrician of Toulouse, of control of all the cities up to the Pyrenees and of the Vascones around 672 is mentioned. For some authors, Felix's policy of confrontation with Frankish power would have been continued by his successor Lupus, a process that would culminate in the time of Eudes, who would achieve recognition as a regnum for the southern part of former Gaul.

During the 6th and 7th centuries, there are theories that say that the northern Vascones crossed the Pyrenees, occupying Aquitaine, in present-day France, where their language influenced the Romance language that would give rise to Gascon, and to which they gave the name of Gascony.

Muslim invasion: Roncevaux and the formation of the Kingdom of Pamplona

During the winter of 713 the Muslim armies reached the middle valley of the Ebro, which was governed by the Hispano-Visigothic Count Casius, who chose to submit to the Umayyad caliph and convert to Islam, giving rise to the lineage of the Banu Qasi, in exchange for keeping his power in the region. Pamplona, however, was finally occupied after putting up resistance in 718 and forced to pay tribute to the Muslim governors, who established a protectorate. The Muslim defeat at the Battle of Poitiers in 732 against the Franks of Charles Martel weakened the Muslim position, but the wali Uqba redirected the situation by installing a military garrison in the city between 734 and 741.[14]

Charlemagne's Hispanic March

Main article: Hispanic March
Map showing all the counties of the Hispanic March and Vasconia.
Another version of the Hispanic March in the year 814
Battle of Roncevaux in 778. Death of Roland, in the Grandes Chroniques de France, illustrated by Jean Fouquet, Tours, ca. 1455–1460, BNF.

The Hispanic March was the political-military frontier of the Carolingian Empire south of the Pyrenees. After the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, this territory was dominated through military garrisons established in places such as Pamplona, Aragon, Ribagorza, Pallars, Urgell, Cerdanya or Roussillon. At the end of the 8th century, the Carolingians intervened in the northeast of the peninsula with the support of the native population of the mountains. Frankish rule then became effective further south after the conquest of Girona (785) and Barcelona (801). In the Hispanic March, made up of counties dependent on the Carolingian monarchs, at the beginning of the 9th century, the Frankish counts were replaced by native nobles.

The territory won from the Muslims was configured as the Hispanic March, in contrast to the Andalusi Upper March, and stretched from Pamplona to Barcelona. Of all of them, those that achieved the greatest prominence were Pamplona, constituted as a kingdom in the first quarter of the 9th century; Aragon, constituted as an independent county in 809; Urgell, an important episcopal see and a county with its own dynasty from 815; and the County of Barcelona, which over time became hegemonic over its neighbors, those of Osona and Girona.

Roncevaux

Charlemagne, taking advantage of the rebellion of the governor of Zaragoza to intervene in the Peninsula, crossed the Vascon territory with a Frankish army and destroyed the defenses of Pamplona on his advance toward Zaragoza, where upon his arrival the shift in the alliances of the rebels forced him to withdraw. Charlemagne's interest in Hispanic affairs moved him to support a rebellion in the Vilayet of the Upper March of al-Andalus by Sulaymán al-Arabi, who aspired to rise to emir of Córdoba with the support of the Franks, in exchange for handing over the stronghold of Saraqusta to the Frankish Emperor.

Charlemagne arrived at the gates of the city in the year 778; however, Husayn, the wali of Zaragoza, refused to open the entrance to the Carolingian army. Owing to the complexity that a long siege of such a fortified stronghold would entail, with an army so far from its logistical center, he desisted and began the journey back to his kingdom. After reducing Pamplona, the capital of the Vascones allied with the Banu Qasi, to ruins, on August 15, 778, Charlemagne, with the most powerful army of the 8th century, was heading north through the pass of Roncevaux, between the Ibañeta col and the hollow of Valcarlos. At that point they were the target of a forceful ambush by bands of native Vascones, probably instigated by those loyal to the sons of Sulaymán, Aysun and Matruh ben Sulayman al-Arabí, who inflicted a general disaster on the rearguard of his army, commanded by his nephew Roland, by hurling rocks and darts at them. The Chanson de Roland immortalized the event. The independence of the western counties with respect to King Charlemagne was decided in the failure to take Saraqusta.

The Kingdom of Pamplona

Main article: Kingdom of Pamplona
Statue of Íñigo Arista in the Plaza de Oriente of Madrid (work of J. Oñate, 1750–53).
Evolution of the Iberian kingdoms, among them that of Pamplona/Navarre, during the Reconquista.
Castle of Clavijo, in La Rioja. The Battle of Clavijo would have taken place in the so-called Campo de la Matanza, in its vicinity.

At least until the year 1130, the kings were styled Pampilonensium rex.[15] Even Sancho VI of Navarre used that designation in the year 1150, when he normally used that of rex Nauarre.[16]

The Kingdom of Pamplona is the name used by some historians, in accordance with the Royal Frankish Annals,[17] to refer to what was, during the Early Middle Ages, the political entity that arose around the civitas of Pompaelo, which had been the main city in the territory of the Vascones during the era of Ancient Rome in the region of the western Pyrenees, and around the leadership of the figure of Íñigo Arista, who founded the royal dynasty and the entity in 824,[18] with the support of his allies of the Banu Qasi family, lords of Tudela, and of the bishopric of Pamplona. There is no consensus among specialists to determine the precise number of monarchs and the length of their reigns, nor on the extent of its territory and influence.

The Íñiguez dynasty ended with Fortún Garcés, who according to tradition, which knows him as Fortún the Monk, abdicated and retired to the monastery of Leire, being replaced by that of the Jiménez in 905, which began with Sancho Garcés I (905–925), whose kingdom is known as the Kingdom of Pamplona or Navarre.[19]

Pamplona was for a long time the most important and richest city in Christian territory; numerous attempts to make it their capital were made by small mountain groups of Christians and later by the nearby territories. In addition to having a large and stable population because it was located in the rich and fertile valley of the Arga River, it was a place of meeting and exchange between the routes of the Islamic world to the south and Christian Europe to the north, through the Basque Pyrenean passes and the coastal ports of the Cantabrian Sea, and of the east–west routes also followed by the Christian pilgrims of the Way of Saint James toward the Kingdom of León, which crossed the Frankish counties of the Carolingian Empire in present-day Navarre, Aragon and Catalonia from the comital Mediterranean coast, and beyond, through the Mediterranean ports. Its neutrality and good relations with its warlike neighbors, its reputation for prosperity and wealth—trade and exchange of crafts in leather, musical instruments, books and weapons, raw materials: ivory, precious stones, cloth, oil, silk, wool, gold, spices...—reached as far as the Vikings.

The constant threat exerted over the Vascon lands from both slopes of the Pyrenees favored the emergence of two leading factions among the Vascon aristocracy: the Íñigo, supported by the Muslims through their kinship with the Banu Qasi, and the Velasco, supported by the Carolingian Franks. When in 799 the governor of Pamplona, Mutarrif Ibn Musa, was assassinated by Carolingian partisans, the Íñigo turned to the Banu Qasi family to regain control of the city. However, in 812 the emir Al-Hakam I and Louis the Pious agreed on a truce whereby the Carolingians took control of Pamplona, delegating the government to Velasco al Gasalqí. At the end of the truce, Al-Hakam resumed hostilities with the Franks and managed to recover Pamplona in 816, control of which the Franks renounced from then on. Íñigo Arista would be designated the first King of Pamplona until 851.

The first Navarrese dynasty (the Arista) would be replaced after three reigns, and in a still mysterious episode, by the Jimena dynasty, which would enlarge the territory of the kingdom with the incorporation of the Riojan lands and the Navarrese Middle Zone, and under which Navarre would reach its greatest territorial extent at the expense of Islam and of the neighboring Christian lordships.

The Mediterranean coast, studded since ancient times with watchtowers against Barbary piracy, to the cry of "Moors on the Coast", saw in 858 the Normans who sailed up the Ebro from Tortosa, ascending it as far as the Kingdom of Navarre, leaving behind the impregnable cities of Zaragoza and Tudela. They then went up its tributary, the Aragón river, until meeting the Arga river, which they also ascended, reaching Pamplona and sacking it, kidnapping the Navarrese King. In 859 the Vikings reached Pamplona and kidnapped the new king García I Iñíguez. Only after paying a costly ransom did the King return to Pamplona, but from then on the old alliance between the Arista and the Banu Qasi was broken and García I would be an ally of the Kingdom of Asturias.

Owing to the internal problems of the Cordobans and the change of attitude of the Navarrese, the only enemy of Ordoño I was going to be the leader of the Banu Qasí, Musa ibn Musa, who styled himself the third king of Spain. In continual rebellion against Córdoba, he tried to secure the Ebro Valley as it passes through La Rioja. In 855 Musa carried out a harsh razzia against Álava and al-Qilá (Castile), and after it he took care to restore and strengthen the military garrison of Albelda. Seeing the threat that this fortress posed to the eastern domains of the Asturian kingdom, Ordoño I and the Navarrese launched an offensive against Albelda. After a hard fight, Ordoño took the fortress and razed it. This battle would give rise in the 12th century to the legendary Battle of Clavijo, which is considered by many to be only a legend forged by the Archbishop Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada.

Musa II would go on fighting against Navarrese and Cordobans until his death in 862. Meanwhile his son Lupp or Lope ben Musà, governor of Toledo, would declare himself a vassal of Ordoño I. The Navarrese woman of Vascon origin Subh, Subh umm Walad, mother of the third Caliph of Córdoba, Hisham II, and one of the most influential women of the Islamic era, was probably born in the 940s and died around 999.

Kings of Pamplona of the Íñiga and Jimena dynasties. Sancho V (as Sancho I), Peter I and Alfonso I were also kings of Aragon.
Main article: Navarro-Aragonese
The domains of Sancho the Great between 1029 and 1035

Navarro-Aragonese is a Romance language, earlier than Castilian, spoken in the Ebro valley during the Middle Ages, with present-day remnants in the Aragonese Pyrenees, known as Aragonese, and loanwords in the Castilian of La Rioja, the Ribera of Navarre and Aragon, to varying degrees. It originated from the Latin dialect during the Kingdom of Pamplona, on a marked Vascon substrate. In its medieval period, the language receives among linguists the name "Navarro-Aragonese", because of the initial Aragonese dependence on the Kingdom of Navarre.

The so-called "Reconquista", or expansion of the Kingdom of Navarre over Muslim and Christian lands, with the consequent repopulation with Christians from the Kingdom of Navarre, would carry the language throughout the conquered territory. The annexation by the Kingdom of Navarre of the Aragonese counties meant a significant influence of the Navarro-Aragonese language on the later territories of the Crown of Aragon and on Castilian.

The first written record of the language is in the Glosas Emilianenses, in the Monastery of San Millán de la Cogolla (La Rioja).


The expansion of Sancho III the Great

The Kingdom of Pamplona at the death of Sancho III the Great (1035)
County of Aragon and dependencies belonging to the Pamplonese monarchy since 922
Acquisition of Ribagorza and annexes 1018–1025
Frontiers restored by Sancho III the Great 1018–1025
Land lost in 922
Area linked to Pamplona since the 10th century
County of Castile and Álava inherited by Sancho III
Area disputed by Castile and León

The apogee came with Sancho III the Great. He ascended the throne between the year 1000 and 1004, inheriting the Kingdom of Navarre and the County of Aragon, under the guardianship of a regency council made up of the bishops and his mother, and incorporating extensive territories into his domains, such as the County of Castile, in addition to the traditional territory of the kingdom (Pamplona and Nájera). The dynastic union with Aragon took place in two periods: from the year 1000 to 1035 and from the year 1076 to 1134.

Under his rule the Christian kingdom of Nájera-Pamplona reached its greatest territorial extent, encompassing almost the entire northern third of the peninsula, from Astorga to Ribagorza.[20] In the reorganization of the kingdom, he is believed to have created the Viscounty of Labourd, between 1021 and 1023, with the residence of the Viscount in Bayonne, and that of Baztán around 1025. On the death of Duke Sancho Guillermo of Vasconia, Duke of Vasconia, on October 4, 1032, he tried to extend his authority over the former trans-Pyrenean Vasconia lying between the Pyrenees and the Garonne, although he did not succeed, as the Duchy was inherited by Eudes.

To the North, the frontier of the Pamplonese kingdom is clear, the Pyrenees (in the event that the authority of the Navarrese kings had extended as far as the Baztán, which is most likely, but which cannot be proven until 1066), and it was not modified. It is not true, despite all the times it has been said, that Sancho III achieved dominion over Gascony (the only Vasconia of the time, that is, the territory between the Pyrenees and the Garonne, in which the population that we can consider Basque by its language was only a minority). The Navarrese king merely sought to succeed in 1032 the duke of Gascony Sancho Guillermo, who died without issue, which was enough for him to be cited in some documents as reigning in Gascony. But the truth is that the inheritance fell to Eudes

— [20]

Union with the Kingdom of Aragon and Reconquest of the Ebro Valley (1076–1134).
Domains which, on the death of Sancho IV of Peñalén (1076), the Aragonese monarch Sancho Ramírez came to govern as new king of Pamplona.
Domains of Sancho IV of Peñalén which Alfonso VII, from 1126, progressively incorporated into his Kingdom of León, and which had previously belonged to Alfonso I of Aragon, who kept in his power until his death Belorado, Nájera, Calahorra, Cervera del Río Alhama, Ágreda, Soria, Almazán, Monreal de Ariza, San Esteban de Gormaz, Traid and Molina de Aragón.[21]
County of Navarre for which Peter I, king of Pamplona and Aragon, paid homage (1087) to Alfonso VI of Castile.
Patrimonial domains of Sancho Ramírez.
Lands reconquered by Sancho Ramírez (1076–1094) and Peter I (1094–1104)
Area reconquered by Alfonso I the Battler (1104–1134)
Domains ruled by Alfonso I the Battler.

He had his residence in Nájera, extending his relations beyond the Pyrenees, with the Duchy of Gascony, and accepting the new political, religious and intellectual currents.

His reign coincided with the crisis of the caliphal world, which began with the death of Almanzor and ended with the beginning of the Taifa kingdoms. He sought the unification of the Christian states, either through bonds of vassalage or under his own command.

In 1016 he fixed the frontiers between Navarre and the County of Castile, and began a period of cordial relations between both States, facilitated by his marriage to Munia, also known as Muniadona, daughter of the Castilian count Sancho García. From this marriage were born Fernando (Ferdinand I of Castile), Gonzalo (Count of Sobrarbe and Ribagorza) and the daughters Mayor and Jimena, Queen of León upon marrying Bermudo III.

He took advantage of the internal difficulties of Sobrarbe-Ribagorza to assert his interests as a descendant of Dadildis of Pallars and seize the county (1016–1019).

He was entrusted with the guardianship of Count García of Castile. Alfonso V of León took advantage of this situation to seize the uplands lying between the Cea River and the Pisuerga. Sancho III opposed Leonese expansion and arranged the marriage between García of Castile and Sancha of León. On the death of Sancho III the Great, his firstborn inherited from him, with the obligation of the rest of the brothers to pay him vassalage, but they did not respect the testamentary will of the Monarch and in the end the kingdom was divided among his sons, thus giving birth to the kingdoms of Aragon, Castile and Navarre.

During the reign of García Sánchez III (1035 – Atapuerca, September 15, 1054), nicknamed "of Nájera", and of his son Sancho Garcés, Navarre separated from the neighboring kingdoms.

Pamplona and Aragon

In 1076, after the assassination of Sancho IV, of Peñalén (thrown from a cliff of that name located in Funes), Pamplona and Aragon would once again be together for almost 60 years during the reigns of three monarchs: Sancho Ramírez (1076–1094), his son Peter I (1094–1104) and, finally, the latter's brother, Alfonso I the Battler (1104–1134), it being in this period that the taking of Tudela and its district was accomplished. After the death without issue of Alfonso I (1134), neither the Aragonese nor the Navarrese respected the will of their king Emperor Alfonso, which left the kingdoms to the Order of the Temple and to other military orders, each kingdom choosing a different King, and the crowns of Pamplona and Aragon separated after 50 years. In what would become Navarre he was succeeded by García Ramírez of Pamplona, the Restorer (1134–1150).

See also: Alfonso I of Aragon § Will and succession

The progressive territorial decline of the kingdom

The Kingdom of Navarre of Sancho VI the Wise (1154–1194)[22]
Kingdom of Navarre
Territory gained permanently (1198–1200)
First domains in Ultrapuertos (from 1189)
Temporary penetration
Kingdom of Artajona under Sancho III of Castile (1153–1158)

On separating from Aragon, Navarre became a kingdom with no possibility of expansion, since it had no frontier with the Muslim territories and was wedged between the now much more powerful Castile and Aragon; territorially, the Kingdom of Navarre was gradually reduced, although culturally its expansion continued.

Thus, the Arbitral Award of King Henry II of England of March 16, 1177, made between Kings Alfonso VIII, on behalf of the crown of Castile, and Sancho VI the Wise, on behalf of the Kingdom of Navarre, concerning territorial ownership and frontier limits, was issued after both had accepted a Pact-Agreement on August 25, 1176, in which they accepted the arbitration of the English King and that a seven-year truce would be respected. That award provided for the handing over to Castile of certain territories, mainly of La Rioja, with Navarre receiving in return, among others, the territories of Álava, Guipúzcoa and the Duranguesado (Biscay), in addition to financial compensation.[23] Neither party complied with the ruling, although later both parties agreed to abide only by what concerned the situation of the territories of the present-day community of La Rioja, which ceased to belong to the Kingdom of Navarre from that date. There are several interpretations of that award.


Castilian and Aragonese expansionism made Navarrese territory shrink. The determination to divide it between them is recorded in several treaties made by those kingdoms in the 12th century. The kings of these two kingdoms signed the "Treaty of Cazola" of March 1179, or that of 1198, to divide the Kingdom of Navarre between them, with the Arga River, which crosses Navarre from north to south, as the new frontier between the two kingdoms.[24]

The loss of Álava, Guipúzcoa and the Duranguesado (1200)

The Kingdom of Navarre of Sancho VII the Strong (1194–1234)
Kingdom of Navarre
Territory lost to Castile (1198–1200)
Territories obtained through vassalage (1196–1203)
[22]
Seal of the King of Navarre Sancho VII the Strong

Thus, around 1200, and despite a Navarrese repopulation effort in the area (which bore fruit in, among other things, the founding of Vitoria and San Sebastián, two of the three capitals of the present-day autonomous community of the Basque Country), Castile, relying on the lesser nobility, gained the support of local factions in the Duranguesado, and in Álava, after having besieged Vitoria for nine months.

As for Guipúzcoa, it has commonly been believed that, owing to the military superiority shown by the Castilian army commanded by the Lord of Biscay at Vitoria and in the face of the entry of Castilian troops into its territory,[24] Guipúzcoa joined Castile through negotiation. However, as a result of rereading known historical sources, this belief must be reconsidered, since it has been discovered that, like Vitoria, San Sebastián was also conquered militarily.[25][26]

The parientes mayores (lineage heads) of Guipúzcoa, who were already divided into two irreconcilable factions,[27] maintained their positions: the Oñacinos supported aggregation to Castile, and the Gamboínos defended the continuation of the union with Navarre.[28]

In turn, these factions had the support of the Navarrese factions, and thus the Beaumontese supported the Oñacinos and the Agramontese the Gamboínos.[29]

Internal reorganization

The Iberian kingdoms in 1360

The work of the monarchs of the 13th century, after the partial conquest of Navarre, would be based on the reconstruction and internal reorganization of the kingdom and on confronting the continual appetites of its neighbors to divide it. Despite everything, and personally persuaded by the Archbishop of Toledo, Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada, a native of Puente la Reina, it would take part in undertakings such as the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), in which the Navarrese Monarch Sancho VII the Strong distinguished himself.

The death without issue of Sancho VII the Strong, despite his having left a pact of adoption with James of Aragon, meant the enthronement in Navarre, for almost two centuries, of French dynasties (that of Champagne, the Capetian and that of Évreux), which also held territories in France and would neglect to varying degrees the government of the small kingdom.

War of the Navarrería (1276)

Main article: War of the Navarrería

The city of Pamplona was divided into independent and opposing burgs (Navarrería and San Miguel against the burgs of San Cernín and San Nicolás), allied with other States; for example, the Navarrería quarter was razed by French troops in 1276, and the confrontation spread throughout Navarre, with these defeating the Castilian allies and establishing the rapprochement of Navarre with France.

The civil war (1451)

Main article: Navarrese Civil War
Map of the Navarrese Civil War

After the establishment of the House of Trastámara in Aragon in the mid-15th century, the sociopolitical crisis of the kingdom gradually polarized the leading forces of Navarre around two factions: the Beaumontese and the Agramontese.

This is a complex conflict with shifting positions and attitudes, which on the surface is a conflict between noble factions, but which also seems to reveal some kind of socioeconomic confrontation between mountain and ribera (riverside lowlands), according to some authors. In any case, both factions were distributed throughout Navarre.[30] This confrontation would lead to a civil war in 1441, when John II of Aragon (king consort of Navarre) kept the throne for himself instead of ceding it to his son Charles, Prince of Viana, to whom it belonged. Charles had been designated heir to the kingdom by the will of his mother Queen Blanche, although that document prescribed that he should not take possession of the kingdom without the consent of his father John II. In 1452 the Prince was captured at the battle of Aibar.

The civil war persisted after the death of Charles, Prince of Viana, in 1461 and that of John II in 1479. The Beaumontese had the support of the Castilians, while the Agramontese had first the Aragonese as allies (because John II was King of Aragon) and then the French.

Demographically, the Kingdom of Navarre had reached its lowest point between the years 1450 and 1465, coinciding with the most acute episodes of the civil conflict (which was not directly bloody); to the population loss due to sabotage was added the plague epidemic between the years 1504 and 1507, with higher population levels recovered from 1530 onward (once the conquest of Navarre by Castile and Aragon had been carried out and settled).[31]

The Castilian-Aragonese conquest (1512)

Standard of the Kings of Navarre from 1212 (old version)
Kingdom of Navarre during the stage of its conquest (1463–1530) with the patrimonial domains of the houses of Foix and Albret.[32]
Territory incorporated into Castile in 1463
Domains of the house of Albret
Domains of the house of Foix
Kingdom of Navarre incorporated into Castile in 1515
Lower Navarre abandoned by Castile in 1530
Main article: Conquest of Navarre

At the end of the 15th century the King of Aragon Ferdinand the Catholic was carrying out continual interference in the civil war of Navarre in support of the Beaumontese, which in some periods had amounted to a genuine military occupation. At the beginning of the 16th century the Beaumontese had lost the civil war and their leader had fled into Castilian exile, where he died. From there his descendant supported the Aragonese King in his already decided invasion of the Kingdom of Navarre. This led the King of Navarre in 1512 to be forced to sign the Treaty of Blois, by which he obtained the support of the Kingdom of France against a possible aggression. This was regarded by Castile and Aragon as belligerence, since Francis I of France was in conflict with the Castilian-Aragonese and, moreover, had been declared a schismatic Monarch at the Fifth Council of the Lateran by Pope Julius II.

Ferdinand the Catholic, who was the half-brother of the deceased Charles, Prince of Viana (son of John II and his first marriage to Queen Blanche I), began the invasion on July 10 with the taking of Goizueta, although it was not publicized, and eight days before the signing of the Treaty of Blois. The bulk of the army, of more than 16,000 well-equipped and experienced men, entered Navarre from Álava on July 22, under the command of Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, second Duke of Alba, with the support of the Beaumontese leader the Count of Lerín (Constable of Navarre) and his men.

The powerful army settled on the outskirts of Pamplona (specifically at the palace of Arazuri, controlled by the Beaumontese faction), then a poorly fortified city of between 6,000 and 10,000 souls, which signed its surrender on July 25. The Archive of Simancas contains documents relating to this period.[33]

In other places in Navarre, resistance was greater: Lumbier until August 10, Estella until August, Viana until August 15, Roncal until September 9, as well as Tudela, which was the greatest Agramontese bastion, where forces had to come from Aragon to take it.[34] The Navarrese monarchs John and Catherine took refuge in their domains of Béarn, from where they organized the resistance.

The conquest of Upper Navarre did not end here, since Catherine of Foix and John III of Albret, and later Henry II, supported by the French monarchs, made as many as three military attempts to recover the kingdom.

They made the first that same year, in November, when an army of Agramontese Navarrese, French and mercenaries entered the kingdom with 15,000 men under the command of John of Albret and General La Palice. Several towns of the interior rose up, such as Estella, Cábrega, Villamayor de Monjardín and Tafalla, and they went so far as to besiege Pamplona from November 3 to 30. With the arrival of Castilian reinforcements by way of the Perdón, a hasty assault on Pamplona was made on November 27, which failed. Owing to the approach of winter, the Franco-Navarrese troops began their retreat toward the Baztán. At the Velate Pass, the rearguard was surprised by Castilian forces, in which Oñacino Guipuzcoans predominated, under the command of López de Ayala, in what has been called the Battle of Velate, with the defeat and loss of twelve pieces of artillery, and it is disputed whether the loss of more than a thousand Franco-Navarrese men also occurred.[35]

The second took place in 1516, taking advantage of the death of Ferdinand the Catholic and the complicated Castilian succession. The army, under the command of Marshal Pedro de Navarra, poorly supplied and equipped, was defeated in the Roncal by Colonel Cristóbal de Villalba.[36] The Marshal was taken prisoner (he would die murdered in the Castle of Simancas in 1522). To avoid later problems, Cardinal Cisneros, Regent of Castile, ordered the demolition of all the fortresses, except the strategic ones and those belonging to the Beaumontese allies.

The military route having failed, the diplomatic one was attempted. Thus two meetings took place between the parties, at Noyon (1516) and Montpellier (1519), which yielded no success, so the Navarrese monarchs, supported by France, made a last warlike attempt.

In 1521, taking advantage of the War of the Communities that was ravaging Castile, and during the reign of Henry II, who had the unconditional support of Francis I of France, eager to weaken Charles I at all costs, there was a general uprising throughout Navarre, including the Beaumontese towns, while a Navarrese-Gascon army that came from the north managed to reconquer all of Navarre. However, the attack had been delayed too long, not taking place until May, when in April the comuneros had been crushed by the royal troops. Moreover, instead of consolidating the victory, the Navarrese-Gascon army sought to enter Logroño by besieging it, which allowed the Castilian army to reorganize into three army corps. On June 10 the troops began to withdraw under the pressure of the Castilian troops, which numbered three times the Navarrese. There was some clash at Puente la Reina, and after committing several strategic errors, they finally met in a bloody Battle of Noáin (June 30, 1521), on the outskirts of Pamplona, where no fewer than 5,000 combatants lost their lives. After this defeat, the remains of the Franco-Navarrese army dispersed, although around October some combatants entrenched themselves in the castle of Maya (valley of Baztán), where they held out until July 19, 1522, and in the fortress of Fuenterrabía, which held out until March 1524.[34] In December 1523, Charles I decreed a pardon for the rebels, excluding some seventy members of the Navarrese nobility. To bring about the fall of Fuenterrabía, the emperor decreed a new pardon, including those excluded from the previous one, on condition that an oath of fidelity be sworn to him. Thus ended the attempts to recover the independence of Upper Navarre. The instability of the occupation in Lower Navarre led Charles I to renounce it definitively, withdrawing definitively by 1530, where the king of Navarre Henry II maintained the independence of the kingdom.

Coat of arms with the arms of Castile and León and Navarre-Évreux at Santa María la Real of Nájera (La Rioja)

Despite the various attempts at reconquest, Ferdinand the Catholic had continued working to consolidate the institutional incorporation of Navarre into his domains. In 1513, the Cortes of Navarre, convened in Pamplona by the Castilian Viceroy and attended only by Beaumontese, named Ferdinand the Catholic king of Navarre. On July 7, 1515, the Cortes of Castile in Burgos, with no Navarrese present,[37] annexed the Kingdom of Navarre to that of Castile. The new King undertook to respect the fueros of the kingdom.

The subsequent kings continued to swear to Navarre's own laws. However, from the 18th century onward, the fueros would begin to be definitively attacked until they were abolished in the 19th century. As an additional ideological justification, apart from the treaty of Blois (which was the excuse that regarded Navarre as an enemy state), Ferdinand the Catholic had in his favor the fact that Pope Julius II excommunicated the kings of Navarre and dispossessed them of the kingdom, alleging collusion of the Navarrese royal house with the Protestantism that was spreading through the south of France and its alliance with the French Monarch, declared schismatic.

In 1516, Cardinal Cisneros ordered the elimination of all the defensive works of Navarre, owing to the impossibility of defending all the castles with the Castilian army. Navarre came to have more than a hundred castles in all of what was the Kingdom of Navarre.[38] Very few have remained standing, and these only partially, with their tops cut down.

Coat of arms of Charles I on the wall of Viana, with the Spanish arms of the Monarchy and those of Navarre in a preferential place

After an irregular occupation of Lower Navarre, including Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port, by the troops of Emperor Charles V, in 1528 he decided to abandon the territory because of its difficult defense. In this part of the Kingdom of Navarre the Albret-Foix dynasty continued, which would become linked with that of Bourbon, who would come to reign in France; and although their domains in Béarn were larger than those of Navarre, these Navarrese territories conferred on them the royal dignity, and their successors very jealously kept it separate, even after acceding to the throne of France, and bore the title of kings of France and Navarre. Louis XIII accepted a reconciliation of the Fort et costumas deu Royaume de Navarra deça ports in 1611, but taking care that chapters of public law were not included. In 1620 he published the edict of incorporation of the Kingdom of Navarre together with the territories of Béarn, Andorra and Donnezan into the Crown of France, preserving its inhabitants in their fueros, franchises, liberties and rights;[39][40][41][42] in 1789, with the French Revolution, all the privileges of all the territories of the monarchy were abolished in favor of a common law, and the title of kings of France and Navarre was suppressed in 1789,[39][43] despite Navarre's opposition.[44][45][46][47] In 1790, the National Assembly decreed the creation of the department of Basses-Pyrénées (currently Pyrénées-Atlantiques), into which Béarn, Lower Navarre and other nearby lands were incorporated.[39]

From that moment the present-day peninsular Navarre would remain integrated into the Hispanic Monarchy, showing no instability of consequence and remaining with the Castilian crown when, around 1640, the territorial system of the Habsburg monarchy entered into crisis with the separation of Portugal and the revolt of Catalonia. Despite everything, and gradually, as the Franco-Spanish rivalry shifted to other spheres, Navarre would become a forgotten kingdom, increasingly marginalized from the centers of political and economic power. The Habsburg dynasty would establish in Pamplona the figure of a Viceroy, with the cortes of the kingdom remaining very active.

During the War of the Spanish Succession, Navarre (despite the fierce anti-French sentiment of the people) would side with the Duke of Anjou (the future Philip V) rather than with Archduke Charles of Austria (as the kingdoms of the Crown of Aragon did). That is why both Tudela and Sangüesa were occupied by the Austracist troops. At the end of the conflict, Navarre, like the Basque provinces, preserved its fueros, as opposed to the kingdoms of the Crown of Aragon, declared traitors by Philip V and stripped of their foral prerogatives by the Nueva Planta decrees.

Logically, the new reigning dynasty proved much more centralist and less inclined to pacts than the Habsburg one, and on various occasions the foral regime was called into question by the government of the monarchy.

One-maravedí coin issued in Pamplona in 1830. It shows Ferdinand VII as Ferdinand III of Navarre.

The province of Navarre (1841)

Zumalacárregui.

On November 14, 1833, the Carlist rebels chose Tomás de Zumalacárregui as their leader in Estella.

General Maroto, in charge of the Carlist troops of the North, and General Espartero, as representative of the government of Isabella II, signed on August 29, 1839, the Convention of Oñate, which put an end to the First Carlist War (1833–1840) in the north of the peninsula, confirmed by what is known as "the Embrace of Vergara" between Maroto and Espartero on August 31. Maroto did not have the support of the pretender Don Carlos, nor the agreement of part of his troops. On September 14, 1839, the Carlist pretender and the troops that remained loyal to him crossed the French border, and the war begun in 1833, with the majority support of the rural population of Navarre for the royal pretender Don Carlos, ended on the northern front.

In this convention it was also agreed to eliminate certain foral particularities in order to adapt them to the constitution of 1837 (Article 1. The Captain General, Don Baldomero Espartero, will earnestly recommend to the Government the fulfillment of its offer to commit itself formally to propose to the Cortes the granting or modification of the fueros), as would later be reflected in the Decree of Confirmation of Fueros of 1839, with the commitment to respect the fueros «without prejudice to the constitutional unity of the monarchy», "hearing" Navarre and the Vascongadas Provinces.

The liberal government wished to impose its centralist principles and suppress the fueros, considering them unjust medieval privileges, and for that reason the liberals of the Provincial Deputation, with Yanguas Miranda as their visible head, negotiated with the central government the suppression of almost all the foral privileges. In this way, in 1841, by means of the Law of Modification of the Fueros of Navarre, later called the Navarrese Paccionada Law, the Kingdom of Navarre ceased to exist and came to be considered a «foral province», thereby definitively losing its sovereignty in favor of a Spanish sovereignty. With this it lost prerogatives such as exemption from military service and the minting of its own coinage, as well as seeing the customs posts moved from the Ebro to the Pyrenees. However, the province still retained broad fiscal, administrative and tax autonomy, set down in the Paccionada Law of 1841.

The epithet "Paccionada" referred to the fact that its enactment was agreed (pactada) with the Provincial Deputation, which was controlled by the Navarrese liberals. This whole process was openly criticized by Ángel Sagaseta de Ilurdoz Garraza, the last Syndic of the Cortes of the Kingdom.

Sagasta's minister Germán Gamazo attempted in 1893 to suppress the fiscal autonomy of the Paccionada Law, and a popular and institutional reaction known as the «Gamazada» took place. This regulation was never applied because the minister resigned for other reasons, among them the rebellion in Cuba of 1895.

Languages in the Middle Ages

The population mainly spoke Basque, and Romance varieties in the south: the endogenous Navarrese Romance, and the Languedocian Occitan Romance variety, of exogenous character.[48] Basque would remain predominant among the rural population,[49] although, despite its greater roots among the common people, it was nonetheless written infrequently and in any case informally.[50] Navarrese Romance, adopted as the language of the royal chancery in 1223, relegating Latin,[51] was the official language of the kingdom at least from 1329.[52] This Romance variety would progressively prevail over Occitan in the written language, being replaced by Castilian at the end of the Middle Ages.[53] North of the Pyrenees, in Lower Navarre, the texts of the ecclesiastical, seigneurial and municipal administrations appear written in Navarrese Romance and in Gascon.[54]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Carlos Vilches Plaza. Universidad Pública de Navarra. PURESOC. Publicaciones y Recursos de Sociología y Áreas Afines. Navarra ante el euskera. Pág 40" (PDF) (in español). Retrieved April 4, 2017.
  2. ↑ "Jesús M. Usunariz, Jesús Mª Usunáriz Garayoa. Historia breve de Navarra, Silex Ediciones (2006), pág. 50" (in español).
  3. ↑ Cyrus Ernesto Zirakzadeh (1991). Rebellious People: Basques, Protests, and Politics. University of Nevada Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-87417-173-0. Archived from the original on October 17, 2013. Retrieved December 20, 2012.
  4. ↑ "Texto de la Ley Paccionada" (PDF) (in español). Retrieved April 4, 2017.
  5. ↑ "Enciclopedia Auñamendi. Behe Nafarroa, Historia, los Bajonavarros y los estados de 1789" (in español). Retrieved April 4, 2017.
  6. ↑ "http://books.google.es/books?id=6r90-ReqQhAC&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q=&f=false". Archived from the original on October 17, 2013. {{cite web}}: External link in |title= (help)
  7. ↑ This is a historiographical controversy in which, for the specialist scholars of this period, it has not become crystal clear whether Íñigo Arista was anything more than a comes or a dux. A certain nineteenth-century romantic tradition asserts it, but there are no vestiges that confirm it. After the passage of the Carolingian Franks, a Hispanic March was established during the 9th century, on one side, and in Al-Andalus the so-called Upper March was governed by the Banu Qasi. This is set out in Martín Duque, Ángel J. (2002). "Algunas observaciones sobre el carácter originario de la monarquía pamplonesa". Príncipe de Viana (in español). 63 (227): 835–840. ISSN 0032-8472. Retrieved September 30, 2020.. What is clear is the close link, said to be one of blood, between the Arista and the Banu Qasi, which would have facilitated that autonomy in the Pyrenean areas where Íñigo Arista usually operated. See Lacarra de Miguel 1975, pp. 24–29. However, there is greater consensus in considering Sancho Garcés I «de iure» as the first monarch of Pamplona without any hint of doubt.
  8. ↑ J.A. García de Cortázar, tomo II de la Historia de España Alfaguara, La Época Medieval. Ed. Alfaguara, 1973. ISBN 84-206-2040-8.
  9. ↑ M. J. Izu Belloso, Falsas citas sobre la historia de Navarra. Revista Príncipe de Viana nº 258, 2013[1]
  10. ↑ A. Azkárate Garai-Olaun, Francos, aquitanos y vascones. Testimonios arqueológicos al sur de los Pirineos, in Archivo español de arqueología, 66:167/168 (1993) p.149. Available at [2]
  11. ↑ "Historia de las diócesis de Pamplona y Tudela" (in español). Archived from the original on March 10, 2009.
  12. ↑ For example, interpreting the phrase "Deserviat ereticis contraria resistat baceis", recorded in the chronicle "De laude Pampilone", the historian Armando Besga translates "baceis" as Vascones and states: "Even more significant is the fact that Pamplona was a Visigothic city located on the frontier with the independent Vascones of the era of the Germanic kingdoms. The only Pamplonese document from this era -the De laude Pampilone-, despite its character as a eulogy in the manner of the famous Laus Spaníae of Saint Isidore (which seems to have inspired it), clearly shows the defensive concerns of the inhabitants of the Navarrese capital (most of the brief composition responds to that anguish) and identifies the enemies of the city: the Vascones" (in his article "Sancho III 'el Mayor:' Un rey pamplonés e hispano", Historia 16, nº 327, pp. 42-71). These ideas are contradicted, for example, by Tomás Urzainqui, Navarra Estado europeo, Pamplona, Pamiela, 2003, chaps. I.1, I.2 and I.3.quoted extensively on Celtiberia.net, who finds no relationship between "baceis" and Vascones and states: "Some have translated baceis as Vascones, when the name was well enough known for it not to be altered. Nor can they be the ancient Vaccaei. (...) On the other hand, baceis resembles Bacchic, the followers of the god Bacchus. The heretics are the Arians, barbarians, Visigoths. We deduce that baceis may be the name given to the barbarians in general. The attempt to relate «vaceis» to Vascones is in line with those who maintain the Visigothic presence in Pamplona". In the same sense, contrary to Besga, Alicia M. Canto, tenured professor of the department of Prehistory and Archaeology of the Autonomous University of Madrid, states: "Agreed that in the De laude Pampilone (not Pampilona) the translation of "baceis" as "Vascones", making it appear that the enemies of Pamplona were the Vascones, is completely inappropriate and clearly self-serving", suggesting in passing that in the famous Isidorian quotation (Etymol. IX.2.107), based on Virgil, lateque vagantes Vaccei, the original reference would not be to the Hispanic Vaccei, but to the African ones, lateque furentes Barcaei, so that it would simply be an error of the Sevillian polygraph (message on Celtiberia.net, 2-9-2005).
  13. ↑ In this sense, Agustín Azkarate, professor of Archaeology at the University of the Basque Country, states: "It is one of the periods about which most has been written in the history of the Basque Country, but it has always been written about viscerally. To prove what? Some to prove that during this period the Vascones depended on the Visigothic kingdoms, first that of Toledo, and later that of Oviedo, and others to prove that they were independent of any political power of the moment. Curiously, both those who defend independence and those who defend dependence have agreed on a myth regarding the Vascon, which is the myth of the noble savage. Some to justify the presumed independence of the Vascones, who lived peacefully in their mountains until the invader appeared, and then, we do not know how, they came down from the mountains to the sound of the irrintzi and ran rings around Franks and Visigoths. This point of view has always satisfied the Sabinian historiography, which has confused legend with reality. And on the other hand, those who were determined to prove the dependence of these territories on Toledo and then Oviedo could only understand that stubborn resistance by referring to a savagery, to a non-Romanization, which meant that those people would not be of much interest to Franks and Visigoths, because they lived in a stronghold like Asterix and Obelix in the stories. What is surprising is that these people were buried with funerary rites and materials that have nothing to do with Visigothic Hispania, but rather with the Frankish world north of the Pyrenees. First surprise."
  14. ↑ (Bazán 2006:203)
  15. ↑ "Aragon (Aragón) & Catalonia (Catalunya)". Retrieved April 4, 2017.
  16. ↑ "Navarra / Navarre". Retrieved April 4, 2017.
  17. ↑ Annales Regni Francorum, in which the people of the navarri are distinguished from that of the pampiloneneses (Collins 1985:166)
  18. ↑ (Collins 1985:166)
  19. ↑ (Collins 1985:190)
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Sancho III el Mayor. Un rey pamplonés e hispano Armando Besga Marroquín, Universidad de Deusto
  21. ↑ Ubieto Arteta, Antonio (1981). Historia de Aragón, vol 1. La formación territorial, págs. 181-184. Zaragoza: Anubar. ISBN 84-7013-181-8.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 María Cruz Pérez Equiza (2006). Atlas de Navarra - Geografía e Historia (in español). Gobierno de Navarra y EGN Comunicación. ISBN 84-934512-1-5.
  23. ↑ y sus relaciones con Nabarra y Castilla en 1200 de José Luis Orella Unzué
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Bixente Serrano Izko, Navarra. Las tramas de la historia, pág. 129. ISBN 84-932845-9-9
  25. ↑ In the book Colección de documentos medievales de las villas guipuzcoanas (1200-1369), written by G. Martínez Díez, E. González Díez and F. J. Martínez Llorente (San Sebastián: Diputación Foral de Guipúzcoa, 1991. p. 173) [This book is available in pdf format at the following address: "Copia archivada" (PDF) (in español). Archived from the original (PDF) on December 3, 2013. Retrieved May 28, 2015.] there is a document that was found in the Vargas Ponce collection of the Real Academia of Madrid. It is the transcription that the naval officer and politician José de Vargas Ponce made in 1805 of a document dated 1332 which was in the archive of Guetaria and which has disappeared (the archive was burned during the First Carlist War). This document bears the title "Traslado del fuero de San Sebastián sacado a petición del concejo de la villa de Guetaria" and in it the following is said: «(...) Don Alfonso de Castillea, que Dios perdone, que la dicha villa conquisó (...)» ("Don Alfonso of Castile, may God forgive him, who conquered the said town"). The historian Idoia Arrieta analyzed the original transcription and noticed that the document bears another title: «1202-1332 Guetaria SS. Parte del Fuero de S.S. Y en el preambulo se da por sentada la conquista de S.S» and inside, on the left side of the first page, it reads, handwritten (presumably by Vargas Ponce himself): «Ojo conquista de S.S.» Idoia Arrieta Elizalde: «Ezkutatu digutena: Donostiaren konkista» Archived November 9, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, BERRIA, 2011-04-08.
  26. ↑ Arrieta, Idoia: "Donostiaren konkistaren agiri ezkutuaren aurkezpena: ikerketaren ibilbidea eta ekarpen historiko-kritikoa" (pp. 227-248). In: 1512. Los territorios vascos y el Estado navarro. Actas del II Congreso de Historiadores de Navarra. San Sebastián: Txertoa, 2011.
  27. ↑

    From the beginning of the 12th century the inhabitants of Guipúzcoa were divided into two groups: the Oñacinos and the Ganboinos. One of the most discussed subjects in Basque history is the one concerning the formation of these two groups, also called parientes mayores, jaunchos, whose factional feuds bloodied the soil of the Basque Country for THREE CENTURIES.
    The constant struggle between Castile and Navarre for possession of the lands of Rioja, Bureba and the Vascongadas fed this rivalry, since the Oñacinos supported Castile while the Ganboinos supported Navarre.

    — OÑACINOS-GAMBOINOS e HISTORIA VASCOS y VASCONES

  28. ↑ Gipuzkoa y sus relaciones con Nabarra y Castilla en 1200 de José Luis Orella Unzué.
  29. ↑ "Gran enciclopedia Larousse" ISBN 84-320-7370-9
  30. ↑ As Eloísa Ramírez demonstrates in Solidares nobiliarias y conflictos políticos en Navarra, 1387–1464.
  31. ↑ La población navarra a comienzos del siglo: el Recuento de casas de 1514 (Study carried out by Peio Joseba Monteano, Príncipe de Viana, ISSN 0032-8472, Año nº 61, Nº 220, 2000.)
  32. ↑ Own elaboration consulting: María Cruz Pérez Equiza (2006). "El final del Reino". In Gobierno de Navarra (ed.). Atlas de Navarra Geografía e Historia (in español). ISBN 84-934512-1-5.
  33. ↑ Índice de documentos existentes en Simancas relativos a la Historia de Navarra.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Serrano Izko, ibid., pp. 159–163.
  35. ↑ Alfredo Floristán Imízcoz, Historia Ilustrada de Navarra, Tomo I. ISBN 84-604-7318-X
  36. ↑ "http://academica-e.unavarra.es/bitstream/handle/2454/8689/RHSJ%20Geograf%C3%ADa%20e%20Historia%2019-2012-%20Entre%20Plasencia.pdf?sequence=1" (PDF). Retrieved April 4, 2017. {{cite web}}: External link in |title= (help)
  37. ↑ Tomás Urzainqui Mina, Navarra Estado europeo, p. 264. ISBN 84-7681-397-X
  38. ↑ Iñaki Sagredo, Navarra, Castillos que defendieron el Reino. ISBN 84-7681-477-1
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 José María Lacarra (1975). "Navarra partida en dos". In Caja de Ahorros de Navarra (ed.). Historia del Reino de Navarra en la Edad Media (in español). ISBN 84-500-7465-7.
  40. ↑ "J. R. Mulryne, Helen Watanabe-O'Kelly, Margaret Shewring. Europa triumphans: court and civic festivals in early modern Europe vol. II. Ed. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. (2004), pág. 122".
  41. ↑ "Francis Loirette. L'état et la région: l'Aquitaine au XVIIe siècle: centralisation monarchique, politique régionale et tensions sociales. Presses Univ de Bordeaux (1998), pág. 69" (in français).
  42. ↑ "James Russell Major. From Renaissance monarchy to absolute monarchy: French kings, nobles, & estates. JHU Press (1997), pág. 250".
  43. ↑ "Cyrus Ernesto Zirakzadeh. Hills of Conflict. University of Nevada Press (1991), pág. 27 y ss". Archived from the original on October 17, 2013.
  44. ↑ "Michael P. Fitzsimmons. The Remaking of France: The National Assembly and the Constitution of 1791, [[Cambridge University Press]] (2002), págs. 157 y ss". {{cite web}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
  45. ↑ "Roland Mousnier, Arthur Goldhammer. The Institutions of France Under the Absolute Monarchy, 1598-1789: The organs of state and society, [[University of Chicago Press]] (1984), pág. 251". {{cite web}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
  46. ↑ "Michael Rapport. Nationality and citizenship in revolutionary France: the treatment of foreigners 1789-1799, [[Oxford University Press]] (2000), pág. 21". {{cite web}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
  47. ↑ "P. M. Jones. Reform and revolution in France: the politics of transition, 1774-1791, Cambridge University Press (1995), pág. 14".
  48. ↑ Cierbide 1990, p. 158.
  49. ↑ Cierbide 1998, pp. 512–513.
  50. ↑ Cierbide 1990, p. 155-156.
  51. ↑ Miranda García 2012.
  52. ↑ Cierbide 1998b, p. 532.
  53. ↑ Jimeno Jurío 1997, p. 56.
  54. ↑ Cierbide 1990, p. 157.

Bibliography

Political history

Linguistic history

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