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John of Austria
John of Austria | |
|---|---|
.jpg) Don Juan de Austria armado, by Alonso Sánchez Coello. 1567. (Monastery of las Descalzas Reales of Madrid). | |
| Governor of the Spanish Netherlands | |
| In office 1576–1578 | |
| Preceded by | Luis de Requesens |
| Succeeded by | Alexander Farnese |
| Commander of the Holy League of States | |
| In office 1571–1573 | |
| Preceded by | New creation |
| Succeeded by | Abolished |
| Captain General of the Sea and commander of the Mediterranean Fleet | |
| In office 1568–1576 | |
| Preceded by | Luis de Requesens |
| Succeeded by | Alexander Farnese |
| Captain General of Granada | |
| In office 1569–1570 | |
| Preceded by | Íñigo López de Mendoza y Mendoza, 3rd Marquis of Mondéjar |
| Succeeded by | office abolished |
| Personal details | |
| Born | February 24, 1547 |
| Died | October 1, 1578 (aged 31) |
| Resting place | Pantheon of Infantes of the Monastery of El Escorial |
| Relations | Habsburg |
| Children |
|
| Parents |
|
| Military service | |
| Allegiance |  Spain |
| Branch/service | Infantry |
| Unit | Spanish Tercio |
| Battles/wars | |
Don John of Austria (Regensburg, February 24, 1545 or 1547 – Bouge, October 1, 1578) was an illegitimate son of King Charles I of Spain and V of the Holy Roman Empire and Barbara Blomberg. He was a member of the Spanish royal family, as well as a military officer and diplomat during the reign of his (paternal) brother Philip II of Spain.
Biography
Early years
The date of his birth is unknown. Some sources state that he was born in 1545, as does the first official biography, written in 1627 by Vander Hammer,[1] which is the most reliable because it was written only a few years after his death, and which moreover specifies the place, day and hour: in Regensburg on February 25, at 12:30. Others, such as G. Parker or P. Pierson, place it in 1547. Pierson, in his article Don Juan de Austria / Peter O'M. Pierson,[2] relates that some contemporaries claimed he was born in 1545, and speaks of certain "evidence in public ceremonies" (without specifying it), arguing that it would support the date of 1547. In other cases attempts have been made to date it by his possible conception, but since the Emperor was in Ghent during these years, as Manuel de Foronda relates in his book,[3] he could have been conceived so as to be born on either date. With the year uncertain, the date of February 24 may have been chosen by himself as his anniversary because it was the birthday of his father, Charles I. His mother married shortly afterwards Jerónimo Píramo Kegell (Jerôme Pyramus Kegel), so it is possible that the name by which he was called as a child, "Jerónimo" or "Jeromín", derived from that of his stepfather.
Charles I decided that his son should be raised in Spain. His majordomo, Don Luis de Quijada, reached an agreement, signed in Brussels on June 13, 1550, with Francisco Massy, a viol player of the imperial court, who was married to a Spanish woman, Ana de Medina, by which, in exchange for fifty ducats a year, he undertook to bring up the child. In mid-1551 they arrived in Leganés, where his wife Ana de Medina had lands.
In the summer of 1554, the boy was taken to the castle of Don Luis de Quijada in Villagarcía de Campos (Valladolid), where he remained for 5 years. Quijada's wife, Doña Magdalena de Ulloa, took charge of his education, assisted by the Latin teacher Guillén Prieto, the chaplain García de Morales and the squire Juan Galarza.
Shortly before his death, Charles I drew up a codicil, dated June 6, 1554, in which he acknowledged: «por quanto estando yo en Alemania, después que embiudé, huve un hijo natural de una mujer soltera, el que se llama Gerónimo» ("inasmuch as, while I was in Germany, after I was widowed, I had a natural son by an unmarried woman, who is called Gerónimo"). Once at the Monastery of Yuste, the King ordered Don Luis de Quijada to go and live there, and he moved to the village of Cuacos de Yuste. Although the Emperor officially recognized Don John of Austria as his son after his death in 1558 in his will, which stated that his son Jerónimo was henceforth to be called Juan, in honor of the name that Queen Joanna would have wished to give Charles I.
The heir, Philip II, was then outside Spain. Rumors spread about the boy's parentage, which Quijada denied, and he wrote to the King asking for instructions. The King replied with a note, in the hand of the secretary Eraso, whose crossings-out and corrections reveal the doubts over how to handle such a delicate matter, recommending waiting until the King arrived in Spain. Princess Joanna, regent in the absence of Philip II, asked to meet the boy, which she did in Valladolid in May 1559, coinciding with an auto-da-fé. His half-brother Philip did so on September 28, 1559, at La Santa Espina.
Philip II, following the instructions of his father Charles expressed in the codicil of 1554, recognized the boy as a member of the royal family. His name was changed to Don John of Austria. He was granted his own household, at the head of which Don Luis de Quijada was placed.
Years of education
Don John of Austria completed his education at the University of Alcalá de Henares, which he attended together with two young men slightly older than himself: his nephews, Prince Carlos and Alexander Farnese, son of Margaret of Parma, another illegitimate daughter of Emperor Charles.
Their teacher was Honorato Juan Tristull, a disciple of Luis Vives. In 1562 the "Household of Don John of Austria" appears in the budget of the Royal Household, being assigned 15,000 ducats, the same as Princess Joanna.
In 1565 the Turks attacked the island of Malta. To come to its defense, a fleet was assembled in the port of Barcelona. Don John of Austria asked the King for permission to join the fleet, but it was refused. In spite of this, Don John escaped from the court and headed for Barcelona, without managing to reach the fleet. Only a letter from his brother made him give up his plan of crossing the south of France to reach Italian lands and join the fleet of García de Toledo.
Seeing that his brother had no inclination for the ecclesiastical career planned by his father, King Philip II appointed him Captain General of the Sea. As would happen throughout his life, he surrounded him with trusted advisers, such as Don Álvaro de Bazán (admiral) and Don Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga (vice admiral).
Prince Carlos, probably because of the office his uncle held and also because of the friendship he had felt for him for years, confided to Don John of Austria his plans to flee Spain and go to the Netherlands from Italy, for which he needed galleys to facilitate his passage to Italy. In exchange, he promised him the Kingdom of Naples. Don John told him that he would give him his answer later, and immediately went to El Escorial to relate it to the King.
The King returned to Madrid on January 17, 1568, and the next day, a Sunday, the whole family attended Mass. Don Carlos called Don John of Austria to his chambers to question him about his decision. From Don John's answers he must have concluded that he was not going to help him and that he had possibly betrayed him, so he drew his sword and attacked his uncle, who was able to defend himself until the servants arrived and confined the Prince to his chambers. The arrest of Prince Carlos led Don John of Austria to dress in mourning, but King Philip ordered him to remove it.
Don John of Austria returned to the Mediterranean to take charge of the fleet. After meeting with his advisers in Cartagena on June 2, 1568, he put to sea to fight the corsairs. For three months he sailed along the whole coast and even landed at Oran and Melilla.
Queen Elisabeth of Valois and Prince Carlos died that same year of 1568. Don John took the fleet to Cartagena and went to Madrid. After presenting himself before the King, he visited Doña Magdalena de Ulloa and withdrew for a time to the Franciscan convent of El Abrojo, in Laguna de Duero.
The Rebellion of the Alpujarras
A decree dated January 1, 1567, obliged the Moriscos living in the Kingdom of Granada, particularly in the area of the Alpujarras, to abandon entirely their customs, language, dress and religious practices. The enforcement of the rule led, as early as April 1568, to the planning of an open rebellion. At the end of that year, almost two hundred villages began the revolt.
The King dismissed the Marquis of Mondéjar and appointed Don John of Austria Captain General, that is, supreme commander of the royal forces. He placed at his side trusted advisers with whom he was to deliberate, among them Requesens. On April 13, 1569, Don John arrived in Granada.
The policy of deportation worsened the situation. To achieve greater effectiveness, Don John asked his brother for authorization to go on the offensive. The King granted it, and Don John left Granada at the head of an army. By the end of 1569 he had succeeded in pacifying Güéjar and laid siege to Galera. The situation stalled: it was a fortress difficult to take. Don John of Austria ordered the general assault, using artillery and strategic mines. On February 10, 1570, he entered the town, killing its male inhabitants and imprisoning women, children and the elderly, and then razed it, sowing it with salt. He then marched on the fortress of Serón, where he was struck by a bullet in the head, and Don Luis de Quijada was wounded, dying a week later, on February 25, in Caniles. He soon took Terque and gained control of the whole middle valley of the Almanzora River.
In May 1570, Don John of Austria negotiated peace with El Habaquí. In the summer and autumn of 1570 the last campaigns to subdue the rebels were carried out. In February 1571, Philip II signed the decree expelling all the Moriscos from the Kingdom of Granada. Don John's letters describe these forced exiles of whole families, women and children, as the greatest "human misery" that could be depicted.
Lepanto
The Holy League was a project that had been encouraged since 1568 by Pope Saint Pius V and toward which Philip II was reluctant. In 1570, however, with the question of the Moriscos practically resolved, Philip II agreed to join Venice and the Papacy against the Turks. The Spanish monarchy was interested in nearby objectives such as Tunis, but the other allies leaned toward the defense of Cyprus, attacked by Selim II in the summer of 1570. Although he could not determine the objective of the fleet, Philip II did impose the command of Don John of Austria.
The League was signed on May 20, 1571. The news reached Madrid in June, and the King took twenty days to draw up the specific instructions his brother was to carry. Once again, he would place at his side trusted persons whom he was to consult continually; among them, Luis de Requesens and his fellow student from Alcalá de Henares, Alexander Farnese. The Spanish fleet assembled in Barcelona, where Don John of Austria had to wait until July 20 for the arrival of his nephews, the Archdukes Rudolf and Ernest, whom he conveyed to Genoa. The fleet reached Naples on August 8 to take on provisions. Pius V sent Don John the standard of the League, which he received solemnly in a ceremony held in the church of Santa Chiara. At the end of August the fleet arrived at Messina, where the armada of the League was concentrated. There Don John held a review and received the jubilee, together with the rest of the members of the Armada.
Don John of Austria convened a council of war on his flagship to decide the course of action. Famagusta had fallen at the beginning of August. A defeat of the League would mean leaving the Mediterranean coasts of Spain and Italy completely unprotected against the Turks. Don John defended the idea of an aggressive war: to seek out the Turkish fleet wherever it was and destroy it; this was the plan supported by expert seamen such as Álvaro de Bazán. Don John succeeded in prevailing over the more moderate positions, and on September 15 the fleet left Messina bound for the eastern Mediterranean.
The battle was fought on October 7, 1571, in the Gulf of Lepanto, where the Turks had taken refuge. The galleys under the direct command of Don John were positioned in the central part of the formation.
The conduct of Don John of Austria was decisive for the victory of the League, because of his resolute pursuit of victory and his personal courage in this type of battle, a mixture of naval and land combat, since once the ships were boarded the fighting was hand to hand. This is pointed out by historians such as Braudel or M. Fernández Álvarez, and attested by contemporaries such as Miguel de Cervantes.
For the Turks, Lepanto meant the loss of their fleet; it was the worst defeat suffered by the sultan since the Battle of Angora (1402), and an immediate threat of invasion of their territories. For the Spanish monarchy and the Italian republics, it removed the danger the Turk represented in the western Mediterranean. In addition, there was an immediate gain in the form of booty, since an impressive number of galleys was obtained. With them the Spanish fleet became the most powerful in the Mediterranean, although it could not exploit this advantage owing to the shortage of rowers. Indeed, Don John of Austria freed the Christians who rowed in the Turkish galleys (estimated at some 15,000) and, in addition, the galley slaves of the Spanish galleys who had acted loyally in the combat.
Tunis and Italy
The victory of Lepanto turned Don John of Austria into a hero in the European context. At the same time, it reinforced his ambition: he desired a kingdom of his own, as well as the style of Highness that was systematically denied him.
In 1572 a delegation of Albanians offered Don John the throne. He consulted his brother the King, who told him to decline the offer but not to break off relations with the Albanians. With the King's authorization, Don John devoted the months of July to October to searching for Uluj Ali, a survivor of Lepanto, without success, since the latter, aware of the naval superiority of the Spanish fleet, managed to avoid him.
The following year the Republic of Venice signed a separate peace with the Turks. The Holy League was formally broken, and Don John replaced the flag of the League on his ship with that of Castile. Now the Spanish fleet could pursue its own objectives, and Don John did not waste the opportunity: he asked for authorization to undertake the conquest of Tunis. From La Goulette, a fort held by an ally of the Spaniards, he took Tunis in a swift campaign in October 1573.
Once again the possibility of a kingdom of his own arose, this time conquered by himself. His ambitions were not unknown, for Pope Gregory XIII himself wrote to King Philip II at the beginning of 1574, asking that Don John be invested with the title of King of Tunis. The answer was negative, although the King assured that his brother's merits would not fail to be rewarded.
It was evident that Philip II did not fully trust his brother's intentions. He used his secretary, Antonio Pérez, as a means to learn of and control Don John's ambitions. Pérez provided him with funds for the fleet and took credit for having obtained for him the post of vicar general in Italy. Don John's stay in Italy, however, enabled Uluj Ali to recover Tunis. At this time, Don John of Austria's ambition was already another: the Catholic invasion of England, marriage to Mary I Stuart, and in this way obtaining a kingdom of his own; this plan seemed to have the support of the Pope and the English Catholics. At one point he was even sounded out by an envoy of the Queen about the possibility of a marriage with Elizabeth of England herself, of which he promptly informed King Philip, who expressed his disapproval.
Don John wished to go to Madrid to deal with the matter in person, but the King ordered him to remain at his Italian post, from which he tried to appease the conflicts between various cities of the peninsula. He traveled throughout Italy, from Sicily to Lombardy. At the end of that year, Don John saw his personal secretary, Juan de Soto, replaced by Juan de Escobedo, secretary of the Council of Finance since 1566 and a person linked to Antonio Pérez, who in this way sought to know Don John's actions and thoughts in greater detail. Moreover, King Philip II for years knew the contents of the supposedly private correspondence between Antonio Pérez and Don John of Austria, since he supervised and even corrected it, encouraging the criticism of his own person, in order thereby to learn the thoughts and plans of Don John of Austria.
The Netherlands
Being a natural son of Charles I, the divisions of his father's arms were modified in his coat of arms. It consisted of a shield party per pale bearing, on the dexter, the arms of Castile and León placed per fess and not quartered (repeated in four quarters) as is customary. On the sinister, per pale, Aragon and Aragon-Sicily. Overall, in an inescutcheon, Austria and Burgundy Ancient. The arms of John of Austria did not incorporate the blazons of Granada, Burgundy Modern, Brabant, Flanders and Tyrol, which were present in his father's arms. On the outside, surrounding the shield, the collar of the Order of the Golden Fleece.[4]
Meanwhile, the problems in the Netherlands intensified. The policy of harsh repression carried out by the Duke of Alba was followed by that of the moderate Don Luis de Requesens. But Requesens died on March 5, 1576, a circumstance immediately exploited by William of Orange to fan the rebellion. The Council of State, which governed the territory on an interim basis, urged the King to appoint a new governor urgently, and that he be of the royal family.
The choice was obvious: the King ordered Don John of Austria to go immediately to the Netherlands as governor. Don John of Austria disobeyed the royal command and instead went to Madrid, to learn the prospects of the English plan, the support his brother was going to offer him and on what terms he would go to Brussels. Philip II again rejected his request to be granted the title of Infante of Castile and with it the coveted style of Royal Highness, but in exchange accepted his suggestion of a single command in his hands. On a possible invasion of England, Philip II did not express himself conclusively.
Don John of Austria took advantage of his stay in Spain to see Magdalena de Ulloa. It was she who disguised him for the next stage of his journey: he would go to the Netherlands, not from Italy, but through France. To do so, he dressed as the Morisco servant of an Italian nobleman, Octavio de Gonzaga. He crossed France and reached Luxembourg, the only loyal province. There he met his mother, Barbara Blomberg. After that conversation, Barbara Blomberg, who had always refused to live in Spain, agreed to go to the Peninsula, where she was assigned a house and pension, and she eventually died in Colindres.
The old tercios of Flanders, who had gone months without receiving their pay, sacked the city of Antwerp in a terrible day that created the worst possible situation for the arrival of Don John of Austria in the Netherlands. He carried instructions, above all, to follow Requesens's policy and to be conciliatory. In order to be recognized as governor and for the rebels to respect the Catholic faith, he agreed to discharge his troops, to have the old tercios leave for Spain or Lombardy, and to respect Flemish liberties. He signed the Perpetual Edict on February 17, 1577. By May the situation seemed to have been pacified, and Don John of Austria was able to enter Brussels in triumph.
Given this situation of peace, Don John of Austria wished to return to Madrid to deal with the matter of England. In June 1577 he sent his secretary Escobedo, whom he trusted, so that, through Antonio Pérez, he might obtain his return to Spain or else the means to invade England. The King refused Don John of Austria's return to Spain. At that moment, circumstances worsened in Flanders. In July 1577, Don John of Austria broke the pact and replaced the troops of Namur with Germans. In August he ordered the return of the tercios stationed in Milan, since thanks to the Indies fleet, which arrived in Seville in August 1577, the King had funds to pay them.
In September, William of Orange set out his ultimatum: he was to surrender all the cities, discharge the troops and withdraw to Luxembourg. Far from acceding to the demands, Don John awaited the arrival of the tercios under the command of his old friend and nephew Alexander Farnese.
His last months
The arrival of the tercios allowed Don John to undertake a military offensive. On January 31, 1578, the old tercios defeated the States General at the Battle of Gembloux, thereby bringing a large part of the Southern Netherlands back to obedience to the King; all of Luxembourg and Brabant were reconquered. This victory was insufficient. He was soon in desperate need of money. Two armies invaded Spanish Flanders: a French one, under the command of the Duke of Anjou, which from the south was besieging Binche;[5] another, under the command of John Casimir and financed by Queen Elizabeth of England, from the east, which was besieging Deventer. Don John urged his secretary Escobedo, who was in Spain, to get money sent to him. In the Councils of State and of War, the Duke of Alba warned of the risky situation, without men and without money. It was in this situation that Escobedo was murdered on March 31, 1578. Current historiography holds that it was planned by Antonio Pérez with the approval of the King, who considered it necessary for the monarchy. The specific arguments the secretary used to convince the King are not known, but historians suggest that they must undoubtedly have revolved around the ambitions of Don John of Austria and the possibility that he might decide on his own to invade England, or ally himself with the Dutch rebels, or even return to Spain at the head of the troops to depose Philip II. There is no reliable fact or indication of any of these possibilities in the surviving documentation of the period; rather, in 1578, the main concern of Don John of Austria was the constant need for troops and money to wage war in Flanders. On learning of his secretary's death, Don John wrote to the King, and that letter shows that Don John understood what had happened, and that no reinforcements could be expected from Spain.
Don John's writings from that time reveal the state of depression into which he fell that summer, while his illness (typhus or typhoid fever) progressed. On some days he even had to stay in bed. His health worsened at the end of September, when he was in his camp at the siege of Namur. On the 28th he named his nephew Alexander Farnese as his successor in the government of the Netherlands. He wrote to his brother asking him to respect this appointment and to allow him to be buried beside his father.
He died on October 1, 1578. He was succeeded as governor by Alexander Farnese. The remains of Don John of Austria were taken to Spain and rest in the Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial. His tomb is covered by a recumbent statue of singular beauty representing the deceased dressed in armor, and as a curiosity it should be noted that, since he did not die in combat, he is depicted with his gauntlets removed. The work was modeled by Ponzano, a native of Zaragoza, and carved in Carrara marble by the Italian sculptor Giuseppe Galeotti.
Personal life
Contemporaries portray Don John of Austria as a young man of attractive appearance and manner. They attribute numerous love affairs to him.
He was a friend of the Princess of Éboli, which allowed him to have relations with María de Mendoza, the fruit of which was a girl born in 1568: Ana. Don John entrusted her upbringing to Doña Magdalena de Ulloa. Later, the girl would enter the convent of Madrigal and took part in the "intrigue of the pastry cook of Madrigal".
While in Naples, in the years following the victory of Lepanto, he had relations with Diana de Falangola, by whom he had a girl named Juana, born on September 11, 1573, and died on February 8, 1630. Don John entrusted her to the care of his sister Margaret. She was sent to the convent of Santa Chiara in Naples. He later had relations with Zenobia Saratosia, by whom he had a son who died shortly after birth, and with Ana de Toledo, wife of the Neapolitan Alcalde.
Assessment
The historian Manuel Fernández Álvarez considers Don John of Austria to be "perhaps the most attractive figure of the court of Philip". He was esteemed by his contemporaries and enjoyed the friendship of his nephew Prince Carlos, as well as that of the valiant Alexander Farnese. As the victor of Lepanto, he enjoyed great renown throughout Europe.
The historian Pierson notes that his contemporaries themselves must not have been sure whether he was "a swordsman or a statesman", and concludes that he must have been both. As a soldier, his role in the war of the Alpujarras and the triumph of Lepanto stand out. His political activity is less studied, in particular the diplomacy he carried out in Lombardy and the rest of Italy. He was less successful in the Netherlands, where the situation was extremely complex and where he felt abandoned and without resources. He is reproached for his delay in arriving once he received the orders to go there, since it is considered that he could have prevented the Sack of Antwerp by the Spanish troops.
Regarding his relations with his brother Philip II, the King's jealousy of his ambitions is usually mentioned. Although he treated him as a member of the royal family, placing him among its members and ahead of the grandees of Spain in public ceremonies, he was not considered an Infante of Spain and did not receive the style of "Highness" either, although he was addressed as "Most Excellent Lord".
Don John of Austria in literature
A historical figure with a life of such novelistic episodes, who moreover died in the prime of youth, inevitably ends up becoming a literary figure. Among the works that take him as a character are:
- Epic poem La Austríada, by Juan Rufo
- The Last Crusader: A Novel About Don Juan of Austria, by Louis de Wohl
- Jeromín, novel by Luis Coloma
- Don Juan de Austria o La vocación, comedy by Mariano José de Larra
- Epic poem Lepanto, by G. K. Chesterton, translated into Spanish by Jorge Luis Borges
- Novel "Bomarzo" (1962) by Manuel Mujica Lainez, in the chapter "Mi Lepanto"
- La visita en el tiempo (1990) by Arturo Uslar Pietri (novel that won the Rómulo Gallegos Prize, 1992)
- Juan de Austria, novela de una ambición, by Ángel Martínez Pons. Edhasa, Barcelona, 2003
- El señor natural, by the Hungarian Laszlo Passuth. Editorial Áltera SL, 2005
- Yo, Juan de Austria, autobiographical fiction by Joaquín Javaloys. Styria Ediciones, Barcelona, 2009.
- Juan de Austria, héroe de leyenda, by Juan Manuel González Cremona. Planeta, Barcelona, 1994.
See also
- Battle of Lepanto
- Rebellion of the Alpujarras
- Jeromín, 1953 biographical film directed by Luis Lucia Mingarro.
References
Sources
- Fernández Álvarez, M., Felipe II y su tiempo, Espasa Calpe, S.A., 1998. ISBN 84-473-3934-3
- Fisas, C., Historia de las reinas de España, 1/ La Casa de Austria, Planeta, 1988. ISBN 84-320-7798-9
- González Cremona, J.M., Bastardos reales, Planeta, 1990. ISBN 84-320-4535-7
- Parker, G., Felipe II, Alianza Editorial, 1991. ISBN 84-206-0024-5
Notes
- ↑ Vander Hammer y León, Lorenzo (1627). Luis Sánchez "Editor del Rey y del reino" (ed.). Don Juan de Austria, historia por Don Lorenzo Vander Hammen y León (in español). Biblioteca regia Monacensis, en Bayer Staatsbibliothek. p. 12. Retrieved March 20, 2018.
{{cite book}}:|editor=has generic name (help) - ↑ Pierson, Peter O'M (2001). Alicante : Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes, 2001 (ed.). Don Juan de Austria / Peter O'M. Pierson (in español). Retrieved March 20, 2018.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: editors list (link) - ↑ Foronda y Aguilera, Manuel de (1914). Edición digital basada en la edición de Madrid, Sucesores de Rivadeneyra, 1914. (ed.). Estancias y viajes del Emperador Carlos V : desde el día de su nacimiento hasta el de su muerte : comprobados y corroborados con documentos originales (in español). Retrieved March 20, 2018.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: editors list (link) - ↑ Menéndez Pidal y Navascués, Faustino, Hugo. El escudo. P. 227. In Menéndez Pidal y Navascués, Faustino; O'Donnell y Duque de Estrada, Hugo; Lolo, Begoña. Símbolos de España. Madrid: Centro de Estudios Políticos y Constitucionales, 1999. ISBN 84-259-1074-9
- ↑ "11 octobre 1578 : Prise de Binche par le duc d'Alençon | Connaître la Wallonie". connaitrelawallonie.wallonie.be (in français). Retrieved 2022-04-13.
Bibliography
The historian M. Fernández Álvarez considers that the figure of Don John of Austria is still awaiting an in-depth study. Following this historian and Peter O'M. Pierson, a scholar of his figure, some of the most notable works on Don John of Austria can be pointed out:
- Bennassar, B., Don Juan de Austria. Un héroe para un Imperio, Ed. Temas de Hoy, 2004.
- CODOIN (Colección de documentos inéditos para la historia de España), volume 27, letters of Don John of Austria from the years of the League against the Turk and of his government of the Netherlands. Between 1570 and 1576.
- Dennis, Amarie, Don Juan of Austria, ed. Rivadeneyra, Madrid 1966.
- Gachard, P., Don Carlos y Felipe II, Ed. Swan, 1984. ISBN 84-85595-22-X.
- Ibáñez de Ibero, C., Don Juan de Austria, político e innovador, Madrid, 1944.
- Montero Hernado, M., Juan de Austria, un héroe al servicio de Felipe II, Sílex, 1985. ISBN 84-85041-94-1 in its 1993 reissue.
- Petrie, C., Don John of Austria, London, 1967. Translated as Don Juan de Austria, Editora Nacional, 1968. ISBN 84-276-0015-1
- Porreño, B., Historia del Serenísimo Señor don Juan de Austria, 1899.
- Stirling-Maxwell, Sir W., Don John of Austria, London 1883.
- Bestiario de Don Juan de Austria Archived 2016-08-26 at the Wayback Machine, the only bestiary in the world written in Castilian.
External links
- «Don Juan de Austria», by Peter O'M. Pierson, at Cervantes Virtual
- Descripción de la galera de D. Juan de Austria by Juan de Mal Lara 1524–1571
- A reproduction of the Royal Galley, flagship at Lepanto, can be seen at the Maritime Museum of Barcelona.
