Captaincy General of Guatemala

Captaincy General of Guatemala
*Reyno de Guatemala*
Captaincy General of Guatemala Reyno de Guatemala
1542–1821
	Flag of the Spanish Empire
	Captaincy General of Guatemala on the left
	Palace of the Captains General in Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala, capital of the Captaincy General.
Status	Captaincy General; Other names: Kingdom of Guatemala; Real Audiencia of Guatemala
Capital	Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala (1540–1776); Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción (1776–1821)
Common languages	Spanish
Religion	Catholicism (official)
Government	Viceroyalty of New Spain
King
• 1609–1621	Philip III (first)
• 1808–1821	Ferdinand VII (last)
Captain General
Legislature	Audiencia of Guatemala
Historical era	Spanish colonization of the Americas; Spanish Empire
• Established	1542
• Disestablished	1821
Currency	Real, Peso
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	Columbian Viceroyalty
First Mexican Empire
United Provinces of Central America
Federal Republic of Central America

Captaincy General of Guatemala is the name by which the territorial entity (part of the Spanish Empire, and in turn of the Spanish Crown in its period of American rule) called the Kingdom of Guatemala is known. It was administered by the Real Audiencia of Guatemala (which was headed by a President who was appointed by the Spanish Monarch and who also held the office of Governor and Captain General) and it was made up of the territory of Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, in addition to the Mexican state of Chiapas.

Its capital was located in the city of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala and, from 1776, in Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción. For much of its history it was under the charge of a single official, appointed by the Spanish Crown, who held the offices of Captain General of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, Governor General of the Kingdom of Guatemala and president of the Audiencia and Royal Chancery of Santiago de Guatemala.^[1]^[2]

In 1821, the five provinces of the Captaincy General of Guatemala —Chiapas, Guatemala, San Salvador, Comayagua or Honduras and the Province of Nicaragua and Costa Rica— proclaimed their independence from the Spanish Monarchy.^[3] They were annexed ephemerally by the First Mexican Empire and, after the abdication of Agustín de Iturbide in 1823, they formed the United Provinces of Central America, which became the Federal Republic of Central America in 1824.

Name

The Captaincy General of Guatemala is the name of a territorial entity of the Indies under the charge of an official holding the titles of captain general —which granted him the highest military command—, governor —with governing authority— and President of a Real Audiencia, that is, with full functions of military administration, government and justice. The term Captaincy General, strictly speaking, in the era of the Indies, referred to the highest-ranking military institution, not to an institution of government of the Indies, and its mistaken consideration as an institution of government is due to the confusion arising from the maps and nautical charts of the 18th century, which emphasize the military designation of captaincy general, and not the civil designation of the governorates.

The term Kingdom of Guatemala is an expression in the traditional bibliography used mistakenly in relation to a political entity,^[4] although historically it existed as such, since Guatemala was one more kingdom of the Crown of Castile, and therefore had a «king», so that the said territory had the characteristics of an entity of that type; therefore, the designation «kingdom» is not essentially literary, as regards the territorial entity or administrative demarcation of the area of Guatemala during the Viceroyalty of New Spain, in the so-called Indies, which was under the charge of a Governor General responsible for public administration (fiscal and policing), and a captain general responsible for military matters, offices which regularly coincided in the same official, in such a way that the administrative, military and economic affairs of the territory were the powers of the governor, captain general and president of the Real Audiencia of Guatemala. In that sense, the designation "Captaincy General of Guatemala", in strict terms, is a reference to the military aspect, while "Kingdom of Guatemala" is a reference to the entity or administrative division, but they are usually used interchangeably or as synonyms.

Likewise, the Captaincy General of Guatemala is often also called the Real Audiencia of Guatemala, although the latter is a body or court of justice, whose jurisdictional district corresponded to that of the Captaincy General or Kingdom of Guatemala. The Real Audiencia of Guatemala qualifies as what Antonio de León Pinelo in the 17th century called a "Praetorial Audiencia" or "Praetorian Audiencia", which defined a governing audiencia whose jurisdiction coincided with that of a captaincy general, defined at the time for geopolitical reasons in view of the dispute that the European powers waged against Spain in the Caribbean region.

The title of captain general of Guatemala was granted in 1527 by King Charles I of Spain to Pedro de Alvarado, who in turn appointed him governor of Guatemala and adelantado of Guatemala, titles he held until his death in 1541; then, when the New Laws of 1542 were promulgated, the Real Audiencia of the Confines of Guatemala and Nicaragua was constituted as the highest authority with functions of government and justice over the territory called the Kingdom of Guatemala, later the Captaincy General of Guatemala, economically dependent on the viceroyalty of New Spain, until Philip V of Spain, by royal decree of January 17, 1731, authorized the founding of the Mint of Guatemala, to begin striking its own coins at that mint in the year 1733, thus being able to further increase its economic autonomy.

In 1611, Antonio Peraza de Ayala y Rojas, Count of La Gomera, was the first to officially hold the offices of captain general of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, Governor General of the Kingdom of Guatemala and president of the Audiencia and Royal Chancery of Santiago de Guatemala.^[1]^[2] The title of captain general remained in force without interruption for the military command of this Spanish territory, with its official seat in the city of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala and, from 1776, in Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción until independence in 1821.

The president of the Real Audiencia of Guatemala was at the same time governor of the province, captain general, royal vice-patron and delegate of the Royal Treasury. Unlike the audiencias of Guadalajara, of Panama, of Quito, of Charcas and of Concepción (Chile), which in the 16th century were audiencias subordinate to the Viceroy of New Spain and of Lima, that of Guatemala depended directly on the Council of the Indies, for which reason it was the first praetorian audiencia in American territory.^[5]

In 1812, the Cortes of Cádiz maintained the authority of the Real Audiencia of Guatemala and the designation of the captaincy general of the same name, abolishing the notion of the Kingdom of Guatemala by dividing its territory into two provinces —the Province of Guatemala (which included Chiapas, Honduras and El Salvador), installed on September 2, 1813, and the Province of Nicaragua and Costa Rica—, each governed by a superior political chief and without subordination to one another, and which together elected seven representatives to the Cortes.

From 1812 to 1814 and from 1820 to 1821, the territory of the Captaincy General of Guatemala and jurisdictional district of the Real Audiencia of Guatemala, like the whole Spanish Monarchy under the Constitution of Cádiz, was divided into provinces that were not politically subordinate to one another, although in military and judicial matters they did have a single authority over them.

In 1812, José de Bustamante y Guerra was the President of the Real Audiencia of Guatemala (1811–1818); he began his command in 1811 with the titles of Governor of the Kingdom of Guatemala and Captain General of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, Subdelegate Superintendent General of the collection and distribution of the Royal Treasury, Special Judge of Lands and Stamped Paper, Conservator of the Tobacco revenue and Subdelegate of Posts and of the branches of Mines and Mercury; in 1812, when the Constitution of Cádiz came into force, his title of Governor was changed to that of Superior Political Chief of the Province of Guatemala (which included the present-day countries of Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras); in 1814, King Ferdinand VII repealed the constitution of 1812 and reinstated absolutism, so José de Bustamante y Guerra once again became Governor of the Kingdom of Guatemala. In 1818, Carlos de Urrutia y Montoya assumed all the offices of his predecessor, governing between 1818 and March 9, 1821 (later, due to the Revolution of 1820, the Constitution of Cádiz was reinstated and his title of governor was replaced with the title of Superior Political Chief of the Province of Guatemala); afterward he resigned the command because he was very ill.

In 1820, with the restoration of the Cortes of Cádiz, the separation between the two provinces of the former Kingdom of Guatemala was also restored. Then, in 1821, the Province of Guatemala was divided into four new provinces: Ciudad Real de Chiapas, Guatemala, San Salvador and Comayagua; and after the proclamation of independence, the Province of Nicaragua and Costa Rica was divided into two new provinces: Nicaragua and Costa Rica.

In this way, Carlos de Urrutia y Montoya was the last president of the Guatemalan audiencia, captain general of the Captaincy General of Guatemala and governor of the Kingdom of Guatemala, between 1818 and 1820; he was replaced by Gabino Gaínza, who assumed on an interim basis all the offices of his predecessor, governing between March 9 and September 15, 1821, being the last President of the Real Audiencia of Guatemala, Captain General of the Captaincy General of Guatemala and Superior Political Chief of the Province of Guatemala; and on September 15, 1821, when the independence of the Province of Guatemala from the Spanish Monarchy was declared, Gabino Gaínza continued to exercise command as President of the Provisional Consultative Junta of Central America, Captain General and Superior Political Chief of the Province of Guatemala). Thus, Gabino Gaínza was the last president who served as captain general of the same and as governor of the Province of Guatemala in 1821.

History and territorial limits

The division and limits of the provinces under the military jurisdiction of the Captaincy General of Guatemala and the political jurisdiction of the Kingdom of Guatemala varied over the centuries. Initially it extended from the territory of Yucatán to the Province of Nueva Cartago and Costa Rica. It originated with the New Laws in 1542, when the Real Audiencia of the Confines of Guatemala and Nicaragua was erected as the highest authority with full functions of administration of government and justice over the territory called the Kingdom of Guatemala (civil term) or Captaincy General of Guatemala (military term), whose initial seat was established in another city: «by order of the Council of the Indies of September 13, 1543, the Audiencia is commanded to reside in the town of Valladolid de Comayagua»,^[6] after the Audiencia of Panama was abolished. The Audiencia was at first composed of four lettered oidores; it was later moved to Gracias a Dios, the present-day city of Gracias (Lempira), in Honduras, a border point of the provinces of Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua, which originally comprised the modern territory of Yucatán, Tabasco, Cozumel, Chiapas, Soconusco, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica.^[7] Its function was to hear all new and pending criminal cases, and its sentences could not be appealed.^[7]

Since the seat of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, and capital of the Kingdom of Guatemala, was in Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala, Captain General Alonso López Cerrato requested that the tribunal be moved to that city, which was authorized by the Crown in 1549;^[8] then, on September 8, 1563, the Audiencia of Guatemala was abolished, and its members moved to the reestablished Audiencia of Panama. The limits of the Audiencia of Panama were as follows: to the east, the Gulf of Darién and the coast up to the Ulúa River; and to the west, the coast from Buenaventura to the Gulf of Fonseca. The rest of the territories of the abolished Audiencia of Guatemala passed to the Real Audiencia of Mexico.^[8] This brought numerous inconveniences to the inhabitants of the region, who now had to travel considerable distances to resolve their legal problems.^[9]

At the urging of Bartolomé de las Casas, who by then resided in Toledo, on January 15, 1568, the Audiencia of Guatemala was reestablished with the same jurisdiction it had in 1563, except that Yucatán came to depend definitively on the Audiencia of Mexico.^[9] A Royal Decree of January 25, 1569, transferred the governorate of Soconusco from the Audiencia of Mexico to the Audiencia of Guatemala.

16th century

In 1524, the Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado ordered the founding of the first colonial city of Guatemala: Santiago de los Caballeros, initially at Iximche (Tecpán), and refounded in 1527 in the valley of Almolonga (today the neighborhood of San Miguel Escobar in Ciudad Vieja, Sacatepéquez) after an indigenous revolt. In 1527, Pedro de Alvarado traveled to Spain and met with Charles V; the Emperor then appointed him governor, captain general and adelantado of Guatemala (appointments that Hernán Cortés never obtained for New Spain), but on his return to America in 1529, the governor of New Spain imprisoned him and put him on trial; he was able to free himself from captivity through the intervention of Hernán Cortés.

The colonial city of Guatemala, Santiago de los Caballeros, was moved again in 1543 to its present location after a flood, becoming officially the seat of the Captaincy General of Guatemala and the capital of the Kingdom of Guatemala. Meanwhile, the first seat of the Real Audiencia of the Confines of Guatemala and Nicaragua was established in another city: "by order of the Council of the Indies of September 13, 1543, the Audiencia is commanded to reside in the town of Valladolid de Comayagua". Then, on May 16, 1544, the Real Audiencia moved to Gracias a Dios, present-day Gracias (Lempira) in Honduras, and remained there until 1549.^[10] By Royal Decrees of October 25, 1548, and June 1, 1549, the transfer of the Real Audiencia to the city of Santiago de Guatemala was granted.

The Compilation of the Laws of the Indies of 1680, in Law VI (Audiencia y Chancilleria Real de Santiago de Guatemala en la Nueva España) of Title XV (De las Audiencias y Chancillerias Reales de las Indias) of Book II, includes the Royal Decree of Emperor Charles I of Spain of September 13, 1543, setting the limits and officials of this Audiencia:^[11]

«In the City of Santiago de los Caballeros, of the Province of Guatemala, let another of our Audiencias and Royal Chanceries reside, with a President, Governor and Captain General; five Oidors, who shall also be Alcaldes of Crime; a Prosecutor; a Chief Constable; a Lieutenant of the Grand Chancellor, and the other Ministers and Officials necessary, and let it have as its district the said Province of Guatemala, and those of Nicaragua, Chiapa, Higueras, Cape of Honduras, the Vera-Paz and Soconusco, with the Islands of the Coast, bordering on the east with the Audiencia of Tierrafirme; on the west with that of Nueva Galicia; and with it and the North Sea on the north; and on the south with the South Sea. And we command that the Governor and Captain General of the said Provinces, and President of the Royal Audiencia thereof, hold, use and exercise by himself alone the government of that land and of all its district, just as our Viceroy of New Spain holds it, and that he provide the repartimientos of Indians and other offices, as the said Royal Audiencia used to do, and that the Oidores not interfere in what concerns this, nor the said President in matters of justice, and that he sign with the Oidores what they provide, sentence and dispatch.»

17th century

According to the historian Domingo Juarros, in the first half of the 17th century, the Captaincy General of Guatemala was made up of the following administrative units:^[12]

Administrative distribution of the Captaincy General of Guatemala at the beginning of the 17th century^[12]^[6]
Region	Components
The valley of Guatemala (or district of the Real Audiencia)	It contained the Alcaldías mayores of: Amatique Ciudad Real de Chiapas Mines of San Andrés de la Nueva Zaragoza Nicoya San Salvador Tegucigalpa Sonsonate Suchitepéquez Verapaz
Corregimientos	Acasaguastlán Atitlán Chiquimula Chirripó Chontales El Realejo Escuintla Guazacapán Matagalpa Monimbó Pacacá Quepo Quetzalguaque Quetzaltenango Sololá Tencoa Turrialba Totonicapán
Governorates or provinces	Comayagua Governorate of Nueva Cartago and Costa Rica Nicaragua Soconusco

Canarian Franciscan missionary in Guatemala and founder of the Order of the Bethlemites. In the image, sculpture of the Saint in the Cave of the Holy Brother Pedro in the south of Tenerife.

Saint Brother Pedro arrived in Guatemalan lands in 1650 from his native Tenerife; just after disembarking he suffered a serious illness, during which he had his first opportunity to be with the poorest and most dispossessed. After his recovery he wanted to pursue ecclesiastical studies but, being unable to do so, he professed as a Franciscan tertiary in the Convent of San Francisco in Santiago de los Caballeros. He founded shelters for the poor, indigenous people and vagrants and also founded the Order of the Brothers of Our Lady of Bethlehem in 1656, with the aim of serving the poor.^[13] The Holy Brother Pedro wrote some works, among them: Instrucción al hermano De la Cruz, Corona de la Pasión de Jesucristo nuestro bien and Reglas de la Confraternidad de los Betlemitas. He is considered the great evangelizer of the West Indies, in the same way that Saint Francis Xavier is of the East Indies. The Saint cared for the poor, the sick, orphans and the dying, and was a precursor of Human Rights.^[14] On the other hand, he was the first teacher of literacy in America, and the Order of the Bethlemites in turn was the first religious order born on the American continent. The Holy Brother Pedro was a man ahead of his time, both in his methods for teaching the illiterate to read and write and in the treatment given to the sick.

In 1660 the printer José de Pineda Ibarra, hired by the Guatemalan clergy, arrived in Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala. He worked in printing, bookbinding and in the buying and selling of books. He died in 1680, bequeathing the printing press to his son Antonio, who continued operating it until his death in 1721.

The first bishop of Guatemala, Francisco Marroquín, sent the Spanish Monarch a letter in 1548 in which he requested the founding of a university in the City of Guatemala; this request received no reply. Toward the end of his life, in 1562, Marroquín decided to leave in his will a sum to found a college, that of Santo Tomás de Aquino, where chairs of grammar, arts or philosophy and theology would be taught. The beneficiaries of this pious work would be the sons of poor Spaniards, since they could not move to cities where there were royal universities, such as Mexico. The bishop's bequest has also been interpreted as the origin of the university. However, the prelate was very clear about the difference between a college —a residence for students, with or without chairs— and a university or General Study, where degrees were conferred. In this regard, the historian John Tate Lanning states: «This will is so well known that some who have not even seen it have read in it many things that are not there. Nowhere does Marroquín mention a university, much less declare an intention to establish one...»^[15] What is documented is that the alcalde Pedro Crespo Suárez, upon his death, donated 20,000 pesos for the establishment of chairs of the university «that is being arranged».^[16]^[17]

The Jesuits opposed the founding of the University, since they did not like the idea of the Mercedarians, Franciscans and Dominicans taking the initiative in religious and educational matters.^[16] After several decades, arguments and petitions, King Charles II issued a royal decree, dated January 31, 1676, which granted license to the capital of the Kingdom of Guatemala to found a royal university or «General Study».^{[lower-alpha 2]} This would be the third royal and public university of Hispanic America, and the second in New Spain.^{[lower-alpha 3]} After a contentious organizational process, five years after the royal decree was issued, the University of San Carlos began lessons in five of its nine chairs on January 7, 1681, with more than sixty students enrolled, and with Doctor José de Baños y Soto Mayor as Rector, archdeacon of the Cathedral, Preacher to the King of Spain and Doctor of the University of Osuna.^[16]^{[lower-alpha 4]} The university was inaugurated under the patronage of Saint Charles Borromeo, its statutes being drawn up by Don Francisco Saraza y Arce, a copy of those of Mexico, which in turn were an adaptation of those of the University of Salamanca in Spain.^[17]

Some of the elected professors did not take possession of their chairs, owing to their occupations as procurators and their imminent departure from the kingdom; others because they considered that their new status, as "interim" and not as "proprietary" holders of the chair, was not worthy of their prestige; and one more, the professor of medicine, never arrived in Guatemala because he was at the Royal University of Mexico lecturing another chair.^{[lower-alpha 5]}

The university constitution required academic freedom, and also required that opposing philosophical doctrines be taught in order to encourage dialectic and the discussion of ideas. The first chairs of the University of San Carlos were:

Canons
Laws
Medicine
Scholastic Theology
Moral Theology
Two courses of languages

The Royal University of San Carlos Borromeo received papal approval by bull of June 18, 1687, ten years after its founding and six years after classes began.^[17]

The Castillo de San Felipe de Lara is a fortress located where the Río Dulce meets Lake Izabal in eastern Guatemala. It was built in 1697 by Diego Gómez de Ocampo to protect Spanish colonial properties against attacks by English pirates. The Río Dulce connects Lake Izabal with the Caribbean Sea and was exposed to repeated pirate attacks between the 16th and 18th centuries. King Philip II of Spain ordered the construction of the fortress to counter pillaging by pirates.^[18]

Conquest of Petén

For almost a hundred years there were no Spanish attempts to visit the warlike Itza inhabitants of Nojpetén. The last contact had been in 1618, when two Franciscan friars had set out from Mérida in Yucatán toward central Petén on a mission to peacefully convert these natives, considered pagans by the conquistadors; the friars were Bartolomé de Fuensalida, O.P. and Juan de Orbita, O.P., who were accompanied by some Christianized Maya.^[19] Andrés Carrillo de Pernía, the criollo alcalde of Bacalar,^{[lower-alpha 6]} joined the group of travelers in Bacalar and escorted them upriver to Tipuj, returning to Bacalar after making sure that the friars received a good welcome.^[19]^[21] After an arduous six-month journey the travelers were well received by the then Kan Ek'. They stayed in Nojpetén for some days trying to evangelize the Itza, but the Aj Kan Ek' refused to renounce his Maya religion, despite showing an interest in the masses celebrated by the Catholic missionaries. The friars withdrew on friendly terms with KanEk (Canek).^[19] The friars returned in October 1619 and stayed for eighteen days; once again Kan Ek' gave them a cordial welcome, but this time the Maya priests were hostile toward the missionaries since they were jealous of their influence over the king. Finally, the Maya priests managed to have the missionaries expelled without food or water, although they managed to survive the journey to Mérida.^[22]

After several decades, in 1692 Martín de Urzúa y Arizmendi, a Basque nobleman and governor of Yucatán, proposed to the Spanish king the construction of a road from Mérida southward to link up with the Guatemalan colony, «reducing» the independent native populations into colonial «congregations» in the process.^[23] In December 1695 the Spanish colonial authorities in Mérida received a diplomatic visit sent by the Aj Kan Ek'.^[24] The diplomatic contact had been negotiated by the Spanish captain Francisco Hariza y Arruyo, alcalde of Bacalar-de-Chunjujub', who in April 1695 had sent a Christian Maya emissary to Nojpetén,^[25] whose arrival almost coincided with Itza preparations to defend themselves against a Spanish expedition entering from Guatemala.^[26] In August Hariza traveled to Mérida, accompanied by a delegation of seven Yalain natives from Tipuj who offered their submission to Spain.^[27] However, in reality four of the members of the delegation were not from Tipuj, but Itza diplomatic emissaries sent incognito from Yalain territory to discuss possible peaceful contacts with the colonial authorities in Mérida.^[28] In September 1695 the friar Andrés de Avendaño y Loyola was in Mérida, between his attempts to reach Nojpetén, and he met with the Itza-Yalain delegation and told them what had happened with his delegation during his journey through Yalain territory after visiting Nojpetén in January 1696.^[29] AjChan and his companions returned to Nojpetén in November, but did not stay long before traveling again to Mérida.^[30]

The prolonged resistance of the Itza had become a painful embarrassment for the Spanish colonial authorities, who decided to send soldiers from Campeche to take Nojpetén once and for all.^[31] In December 1696, the Camino Real from Mérida had reached the shore of Lake Petén Itzá, although it was almost impassable in certain places and still needed to be completed.^[32] In addition, the deep divisions among the political leaders of the Itza were such that a unified defense of the Itza kingdom was not possible.^[33]

At the end of December 1696 the Chak'an Itza attacked the Kejache mission at Pak'ek'em, kidnapped almost all the inhabitants and set fire to the church. The demoralized Spanish garrison at Chuntuki buried its weapons and ammunition and withdrew a distance of five leagues (approximately twenty-one kilometers) in the direction of Campeche.^[34] From late December 1696 to mid-January 1697, Urzúa sent several groups of soldiers and laborers along the road toward the lake; the first group, under the command of Pedro de Zubiaur, had instructions to begin building a galiot, a warship propelled by oars.^[35] This group was followed by reinforcements carrying supplies, including light and heavy weapons, gunpowder and food. On January 23 Urzúa left Campeche with another group of soldiers and muleteers, bringing the total of reinforcements to one hundred thirty soldiers.^[36] The Spaniards strengthened their positions at Ch'ich' and deployed heavy artillery for their defense.^[37]

The governor of Yucatán, Urzúa, arrived with his soldiers at the western shore of Lake Petén Itzá on February 26, 1697, and once there built a galiot in early March.^[38]^[39] A launch was also transported to the lake to be used in the attack against the Itza capital.^[40] On March 10 a number of Itza and Yalain emissaries arrived at Ch'ich' to negotiate with Urzúa; first came AjChan and then Chamach Xulu, the ruler of the Yalain.^[41] Kan Ek' sent a canoe with a white flag carrying several emissaries, including the Itza high priest, who offered peaceful surrender. Urzúa received the emissaries in peace and invited Kan Ek' to visit his camp three days later. On the appointed day Kan Ek' did not appear; instead Maya warriors gathered on the shore of the lake and in canoes on the water.^[42] Urzúa realized that he would not be able to achieve the peaceful incorporation of the Itza into the Spanish Empire, and on the morning of March 13 he launched the attack by water against the capital of Kan Ek'.^[42]^[43] Urzúa boarded the galiot with one hundred eight soldiers, two secular priests, five personal servants, the Itza emissary AjChan and his brother-in-law, and an Itza prisoner from Nojpetén; halfway across the lake they encountered a large fleet of canoes that blocked the approach to Nojpetén and stretched in an arc from one shore to the other over some six hundred meters —Urzúa simply gave the order to row through them—. A great number of defenders were gathered along the shore of Nojpetén and on the roofs of the city. As the galiot approached, other canoes came out from the shore and the Spaniards were surrounded.^[44] Once they had surrounded the galiot, the Itza archers began to shoot at the invaders. Urzúa ordered his men not to open fire, but several soldiers were wounded by the arrows and one of them fired his musket; at that moment the officers lost control of their men, who opened fire. The Itza defenders soon fled before the Spanish gunfire.^[45]

The city fell after a brief but bloody battle in which many Itza warriors died; the Spaniards suffered few casualties. The Spanish artillery bombardment caused the loss of many lives on the island;^[38] the Itza who survived abandoned their capital and tried to swim to the other shore of the lake; many of them died in the water.^[46] After the battle the survivors vanished into the jungle, and the Spaniards occupied an abandoned Maya city.^[31] Martín de Urzúa planted his flag on the highest point of the island and renamed Nojpetén «Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo, Laguna del Itzá».^[47]^[38] Kan Ek' was soon captured with the help of Chamach Xulu, the Yalain ruler;^[48] the Kowoj king (Aj Kowoj) was also quickly captured, along with other Maya nobles and their families.^[38] With the defeat of the Itza, the last independent and unconquered native kingdom on the American continent fell to the European colonizers.^[49]

Urzúa had little interest in the administration of the newly conquered territory and delegated its control to military officers, without doing much to support them, either militarily or economically.^[50] With Nojpetén in Spanish hands, Urzúa returned to Mérida, leaving Kan Ek' and other important members of his family as prisoners of the Spanish garrison at Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo. The garrison, which remained isolated among the hostile Kowoj and Itza who still dominated the surrounding jungle, was reinforced in 1699 by a military expedition from Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala, accompanied by ladino civilians (of mixed race) who came to found their own settlement around the military camp. The settlers brought diseases that caused many deaths among the soldiers and settlers, and that severely affected the indigenous population. The Guatemalan soldiers stayed only three months before returning to Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala, taking the Itza king captive along with his son and two of his cousins. The cousins died during the long journey to the colonial capital; Ajaw Kan Ek' and his son spent the rest of their lives under house arrest in the capital.^[38]

18th century

San Miguel earthquakes

The Church of the Great Father Saint Augustine, new at the expense of the generosity of our Catholic King Don Philip V —who enjoys God's presence— has been left worse than if it were on the ground, for the Fathers need great expense to demolish it, and ingenious means so that the workers are not endangered; to this is added that the Convent is uninhabitable, and its dwellers in rare discomfort and utmost poverty. With increased sorrow I saw with my own eyes the ruin caused in the Church and Convent of Our Mother and Lady of Mercy, and I cannot pass over in silence all that happened in the ruin of the said Church... Today the Most Sacred Image is placed in the Porter's Lodge with the Venerable and Sacred Image of Jesus of Nazareth, which is venerated there, which suffered; because although the Vault of its Chapel is completely destroyed, it remained standing.

— Agustín de la Caxiga y Rada: Breve relación de el lamentable estrago, que padeció esta ciudad de Santiago de Guathemala, con el terremoto del día quatro de marzo, de este año de 1751.^[51]

The strongest earthquakes experienced by the city of Santiago de los Caballeros before its definitive transfer in 1776 were the San Miguel earthquakes in 1717. At that time, the dominance of the Catholic Church over the vassals of the Spanish Crown was absolute, and this meant that any natural disaster was considered divine punishment. In the city, the inhabitants also believed that the proximity of the Volcán de Fuego was the cause of the earthquakes; the chief architect Diego de Porres went so far as to claim that the earthquakes were caused by the bursts of the volcano.^[52]

On August 27 there was a very strong eruption of the Volcán de Fuego, which lasted until August 30; the residents of the city asked for help from the Holy Christ of the cathedral and from the Virgen del Socorro, who were the sworn patrons against the fire of the volcano. On August 29 the Virgen del Rosario went out in procession after a century without going out, and there were many more processions of saints until September 29, the feast of Saint Michael; the first tremors in the afternoon were mild, but at about 7 in the evening a strong quake occurred that forced the residents to leave their homes; the tremors and rumbling continued until four in the morning. The residents went out into the street and shouted out confessions of their sins, thinking the worst.^[53]

The San Miguel earthquakes damaged the city considerably, to the point that the Royal Palace suffered damage in some rooms and walls. There was also a partial abandonment of the city, food shortages, lack of labor and much damage to the buildings of the city, in addition to numerous dead and wounded.^[53] These earthquakes made the authorities consider moving the city to a new site less prone to seismic activity; the residents of the city flatly opposed the transfer, and even took over the Royal Palace in protest against it. In the end, the city did not change location, but the number of members in the Battalion of Dragoons to maintain order was considerable.^[54] The damage to the palace was repaired by Diego de Porres, who finished the repairs in 1720, although there are indications that there was more work by Porres until 1736.^[54]

The tremors continued, and on March 4, 1751, there was another strong earthquake that damaged the city.^[55] On that occasion, the Royal Palace suffered extensive damage and had to be completely rebuilt. The person in charge of the reconstruction was the chief architect Luis Diez de Navarro, whom the authorities of the Spanish Crown asked to make the building resemble the building of the seat of criollo power in Guatemala, the Ayuntamiento, and to have a portico of stone columns with domes in each intercolumniation, in addition to a vaulted roof over the whole complex.^[56]^{[lower-alpha 7]} The construction was completed between 1765 and 1768.

In 1773, the capital of the Kingdom, Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala, was destroyed by the Santa Marta earthquakes, which led to the city being moved to a new location and named Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción.

Division of the district of Guatemala

In 1775 the valley of Guatemala or district of the Real Audiencia was subdivided between the alcaldías mayores of Chimaltenango and Sacatepéquez.

In 1785 the intendancy system began to be applied in the Captaincy General of Guatemala, based on the ordinances applied since 1782 in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. From April 22, 1787, they were governed by the ordinances issued for New Spain in 1786:^[57]

Intendancy of San Salvador (created on September 17, 1785), divided into the partidos of San Salvador, Olocuilta, Zacatecoluca, San Vicente, Usulután, San Miguel, Gotera, San Alejo, Sensuntepeque, Opico, Tejutla, Chalatenango, Santa Ana, Metapán and Cojutepeque.^[58] This was the intendancy of the Kingdom of Guatemala that had, by a wide margin, the most partidos —15 in total— and one of the most populous in the kingdom. It was the first to be created because it was the main producer of indigo, the principal export product of the kingdom in the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th.^[58]
Intendancy of Ciudad Real de Chiapas or Chiapas (created on September 20, 1786), divided into three partidos: Chiapas, Soconusco and Tuxtla.
Intendancy of Comayagua (created on December 23, 1786), divided into two partidos: that of Comayagua and that of Tegucigalpa.
Intendancy of León (created on December 23, 1786), divided into five partidos: León, Matagalpa and Chontales, El Realejo, Sutiaba and Nicoya.
Military Government of the Province of Costa Rica, whose governor had the same powers as (but not the rank of) an intendant, except in fiscal matters, in which he depended on the Intendant of León.^[6]
Province of Guatemala: there was no Intendancy of Guatemala, although the Captain General exercised the functions of Superintendent General; the territory under his direct jurisdiction was divided into four partidos: Guatemala, Quezaltenango, Escuintla and Chiquimula.

Mosquito Coast and the San Andrés Islands

By the royal decree of November 20, 1803, the King ordered that the Mosquito Coast and the San Andrés Islands pass from the Captaincy General of Guatemala to the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalty of New Granada, to be administered within the latter by the Province of Cartagena.

«The King has resolved that the Islands of San Andrés, and the part of the Mosquito coast from Cape Gracias a Dios inclusive toward the Chagres River [from 1825 the Chagres formed part of El Istmo and thus currently of Panama], be segregated from the Captaincy General of Guatemala, and made dependent on the Viceroyalty of Santa Fe, and His Majesty has been pleased to grant the governor of the said Islands, Don Tomas O. Neille, a salary of two thousand hard pesos per year instead of the one thousand two hundred that he currently enjoys. I so inform Your Excellency by Royal Order so that, through the ministry in your charge, those corresponding to the fulfillment of this sovereign resolution may be issued. May God keep Your Excellency many years, San Lorenzo, November 20, 1803.»^[59]

Three years later, by means of the royal order of November 13, 1806, sent to the Guatemalan Captain General Antonio González Mollinedo y Saravia, King Charles IV of Spain ordered the following:

«His Majesty, the King of Spain, has resolved that Your Lordship is the one who must take charge of the absolute cognizance of all affairs that occur in the colony of Trujillo (Honduras) and other military posts of the Mosquito Coast, concerning the four aforementioned causes: justice, police, finance and war.»

19th century

Sample of a legal document of the Captaincy General of Guatemala in 1804.

By the beginning of the 19th century, as detailed by the historian Domingo Juarros, the Kingdom of Guatemala was divided into fifteen provinces:

The alcaldías mayores of Chimaltenango, Escuintla, Sacatepéquez, Sololá, Sonsonate, Suchitepéquez, Totonicapán and Verapaz.
The corregimientos of Chiquimula and Quezaltenango.
The governorate of Costa Rica.
The intendancies of Ciudad Real, Comayagua, León and San Salvador.

In 1812 the Cortes of Cádiz abolished the so-called Kingdom of Guatemala (maintaining the Captaincy General of Guatemala), and divided its territory into two provinces: the Province of Guatemala (including Chiapas, Honduras and El Salvador), installed on September 2, 1813, and the Province of Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Each was governed by a superior political chief and without subordination to one another. In legislative matters at the level of the Monarchy, the two provinces together elected seven representatives to the Cortes in this period.

By means of a royal decree of October 16, 1814, the Intendancy of Yucatán, belonging to the Viceroyalty of New Spain, came to depend on the Real Audiencia of Guatemala.^[60]

The transfer of the capital caused the city of Guatemala to lose importance and political strength vis-à-vis the provinces of the Kingdom of Guatemala, since Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción never had the beauty and grandeur of Santiago de los Caballeros, and when independence was declared in 1821, the city was half-built and did not manage to remain the capital of the Central American Federation.^[61]

The region continued to flourish. Industries such as indigo, cacao and sugarcane flourished throughout the colonial period of Guatemala, creating great wealth and enabling the development of other industries, whose boom lasted until the end of the 18th century. The last decades of the 18th century meant for the Spanish Crown an immense expenditure of energies —human and economic— devoted to sustaining and bringing to a successful conclusion the repeated military undertakings in which it found itself involved. The result of expansionist jealousies, as well as of political and economic advances, these had placed Spain in a rather difficult situation: it was not feasible to succumb to the might of the neighboring powers, but confronting such military undertakings meant countless human and economic sacrifices.^[16] On the other hand, its vast overseas possessions were in themselves another great undertaking in which it had to invest similar energies and resources, although in a different way, as well as watch over them as a valuable treasure on which both its own and foreign eyes were set. An important aspect that warranted mandatory vigilance on the part of the high Spanish royal bureaucracy, as well as the efforts and investments already noted, was the commercial-maritime traffic sustained between the metropolis and its colonies. Through it, the pulse and rhythm of relations between the two continents could be detected. This royal concern over the maintenance and preservation of a continuous relationship in the commercial sphere can be explained by the factors that constituted it, such as, on the one hand, the wealth in precious metals and raw materials that America provided, as well as the consumer market that it itself represented for peninsular goods and products. This exchange, more often than not unequal for the overseas colonies, represented a considerable item in the peninsular royal economy. Hence its constant vigilance and protection, manifest in a whole series of royal provisions which —for almost three centuries— follow a clear line of thought: the preservation, exclusively, of trade with the colonies as something inherent and conceivable only for the Spanish Crown, without ever contemplating the interference of other nations in that relationship. The war waged with England in the last years of the 18th century posed difficult problems for this commercial relationship, since the English forces knew well the nerve centers of the Spanish economy and attacked them head-on.^[16]

Bethlehem Conspiracy

In 1810 José de Bustamante y Guerra was appointed Captain General of Guatemala, at a time of great pro-independence activity; he developed a reformist policy of an enlightened character, but in the face of the revolution of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and José María Morelos in Mexico he prepared troops in Guatemala and created the «corps of volunteers of Ferdinand VII», and from his post he confronted the local constitutionalists, harshly repressing the insurgents; he opposed the liberal constitution of 1812.

From October 28, 1813, and after the election of the rector of the Royal and Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo,^[62] several meetings organized by Fray Juan Nepomuceno de la Concepción had been held in the prior's cell of the Convent of Bethlehem. Those who gathered there swore to keep what was discussed secret; however, it is likely that they read a proclamation by José María Morelos and discussed the possibility of removing Captain General Bustamante y Guerra.^[62] In November there was another meeting at the house of Cayetano and Mariano Bedoya, younger brothers of Doña Dolores Bedoya de Molina, and brothers-in-law of Pedro Molina Mazariegos.^[63]

On December 21, 1813, Bustamante y Guerra learned that seditious persons were meeting in the Convent of Bethlehem to attempt an uprising, and issued an order for Captain Antonio Villar and his aide, Francisco Cáscara, to arrest the religious of that monastery. In the raid, those arrested were the presbyter and doctor Tomás Ruiz Romero and his brother José; the Bedoya brothers, Cayetano and Manuel; Lieutenant Joaquín Yúdice; First Sergeant León Díaz; Andrés Dardón; and the friars Manuel de San José and Juan Nepomuceno de la Concepción.^[62] This resolution was communicated by the alcalde of the Ayuntamiento on the 24th. From then on, until the following month, others would be arrested:

Víctor Carrillo and Benito Miquelena, Mercedarian friars
Felipe Castro and Rafael Aranzamendi, first sergeants of the Militia Battalion
Manuel Ibarra and Juan José Alvarado, employees
Mariano Cárdenas, large landowning farmer
José Ruiz, law intern
Manuel Tot, indigenous leader from Verapaz; and
Venancio López, lawyer and syndic of the criollo Ayuntamiento.

An arrest warrant was also issued against the regidor José Francisco Barrundia, who managed to escape.^[64]

The Captain General became aware of the conspiracy through Lieutenant Yúdice, who would have been joined by José de la Llana and Mariano Sánchez.^[63] Likewise, Bustamante commissioned his nephew, the Carmelite Fray Manuel de la Madre de Dios, at the post office, to open all correspondence that fell into his hands.^{[lower-alpha 8]}

Bustamante y Guerra later denounced his appointed successor, Juan Antonio de Tornos, Intendant of Honduras, for alleged liberal tendencies, and thus obtained his confirmation in his post by Ferdinand VII in 1814. He was removed in August 1817 and returned to Spain in 1819. That same year he again became a member of the Junta of the Indies.^{[lower-alpha 9]}

Totonicapán uprising

By 1820, Atanasio Tzul was recognized as the unofficial representative of the parcialidades of Linkah, Pachah, Uculjuyub, Chiché and Tinamit in Totonicapán; in the same year, with the aforementioned representation and given the interest of his people in ending ecclesiastical taxes and the tribute, Tzul joined forces with Lucas Aguilar and with the Alcalde Mayor of Totonicapán, Narciso Mallol. Together they fought against the power of the Spanish colony, managed by the Captain General of the Kingdom of Guatemala, the Archbishop of Guatemala Ramón Casaus y Torres, the local ladino elite and the caciques of Totonicapán.^{[lower-alpha 10]} The royal tributes had been abolished in 1811 by the Cortes of Cádiz, but were imposed again by King Ferdinand VII.^[65]

The political and military weakness of the Spanish Empire, the first attempts at political autonomy and the competition among Spanish officials were key to the success of the uprising.^[66] Thus came the rejection of the tribute, the removal of the Alcalde Mayor, José Manuel Lara de Arrese, and the imposition of a government of their own.^[65]

At least for a few days between July and August 1820, Tzul acted as the most prominent representative of the indigenous government.^[66]

Tzul was flogged for nine days^[67] and later imprisoned in Quetzaltenango, after the movement suffered repression at the hands of around a thousand Criollo militiamen,^[68] among whom the militia of San Carlos Sija took part. On January 25, 1821, he and other leaders requested the grace of a pardon, which was granted to them on March 1, 1821, after a demonstration by people of Totonicapán.^[67]

Dominance of the Aycinena Clan

The founder of the Aycinena clan was Juan Fermín de Aycinena, from the house of Navarre, from where he emigrated to the Viceroyalty of New Spain, where he established himself in commerce, using mules to transport goods from the coast to the interior of the country.^[69] Later, displeased by certain measures of the Viceroy, he sold his business and moved to the Captaincy General of Guatemala, where he invested his money in haciendas in the provinces of Guatemala and El Salvador.

He devoted himself to the indigo harvest, revitalizing that industry. His fortune grew exponentially, and he went on to establish a banking entity in the city of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala.^[69] After the destruction of the city of Santiago de los Caballeros by the Santa Marta earthquakes in 1773, Captain General Martín de Mayorga appointed him a member of the commission in charge of the construction of the new capital at Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción.^[69] In recognition of his work during the reconstruction of the city, the Captain General granted him the south side of the Plaza de Armas, where he built commercial buildings, among them the Portal del Comercio and the Pasaje Aycinena.^[69]

In 1820, the military coup against Ferdinand VII in Madrid forced the restoration of the liberal laws of Cádiz annulled in 1814 by the King himself; this meant that the members of the Aycinena Clan would see their interests affected because they would lose the commercial monopoly they held, and the Catholic Church would lose the compulsory tithe it enjoyed.^[70] However, after the elections called by Captain General Gabino Gaínza, the clan's network obtained the majority of the deputations; in addition, Mexico became independent from Spain thanks to the conservative general Agustín de Iturbide, who suspended the liberal reforms and set aside the members of the rural uprising of the priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla.^[71] After the independence of Central America, the Aycinenas strove to maintain their mercantile dominance in alliance with the Mexican Consulate of Commerce, the economic support of Emperor Iturbide.^[72]

Institutional organization

Captains general

The following is a list of the authorities of the Captaincy General of Guatemala:

Governors of the Captaincy General of Guatemala
Name	Start	End	Comments
Alonso de Maldonado	1543	1548	He was the first president of the Real Audiencia of Guatemala, but not with the title of governor of the territory.^[73]
Licentiate Alonso López de Cerrato	1548	1555	He was a defender of the natives and an enemy of the abuses of the conquistadors.^[73]
Licentiate Juan Núñez de Landecho	1559	February 12, 1565	First person to be governor of the Captaincy General of Guatemala and president of the royal audiencia of the same name.^[73] Due to the abuses he committed, on May 30, 1563, Licentiate Francisco Briceño was appointed as visitor by royal decree of King Philip II.^[74] Briceño arrived incognito in Santiago de los Caballeros, where he lodged in the convent of the Mercedarians, who were the only ones who knew his true identity. After assessing the true state of the affairs of the kingdom, he formally announced his arrival on February 12, 1565, and immediately placed Núñez de Landecho under house arrest, together with a fine of thirty thousand pesos.^[75] Landecho fled and managed to embark at Amatique, but the ship he was on sank and it is assumed that he died on the voyage.^[75]
Licentiate Francisco Briceño	February 12, 1565	January 5, 1570	At the beginning of his administration he dissolved the Real Audiencia, fining all the oidores who had taken part in the irregularities of Núñez de Landecho and, following the orders of Philip II, moved the Real Audiencia to Panama, whereby Guatemala ceased to be a captaincy general and became a particular province of the Real Audiencia of Mexico, together with the provinces of Chiapas, Soconusco, Verapaz and El Salvador.^[73]^[76]
Doctor Antonio González	January 5, 1570	1573	Following petitions from the regidor Francisco del Valle Marroquín and from Bartolomé de las Casas, O.P., King Philip II issued the Royal Decree of June 28, 1568, in which he ordered that the Audiencia return to reside in the city of Guatemala, and appointed Antonio González as Captain General; this order was carried out when the Captain General entered Guatemala with his oidores on January 5, 1570, and the Audiencia of Guatemala was officially opened on March 3, 1570.^[77] González was, therefore, governor and Captain General of the provinces already indicated, in addition to those of Honduras and Nicaragua.^[2]
Doctor Pedro de Villalobos	1573	1578^[2]
Licentiate García Valderde	1578	1588	During his administration the president was granted a vote in matters of justice.^[2]
Licentiate Pedro Mayén de Rueda	1588	1594	In 1592 he completed the construction of the bridge over the Los Esclavos River.^[2]
Doctor Francisco de Sande	1594	1598^[2]
Doctor Alonso Criado de Castilla	1598	1611^[2]^[78]	Due to the poor condition of Puerto Caballos on the coast of Honduras and its exposure to repeated pirate attacks, he sent a pilot ship to explore Lake Izabal.^[79] As a result of the exploration, and after royal permission was granted, Criado de Castilla ordered the construction of a new port, called Santo Tomás de Castilla, at a favorable spot on the Bay of Amatique, near the lake. He then began the construction of a road from the port to the new capital of the colony, located at Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala, following the course of the Motagua valley toward the highlands. The indigenous guides who explored the route from the highlands did not want to continue downstream beyond three leagues below Quiriguá, because of the hostility of the Toquegua who lived in this area.^[80]
Antonio Peraza y Ayala	1611	1627	Count of La Gomera. Not being a man of letters, he had no vote or intervention in matters of justice.^[2]
Doctor Diego de Acuña	1627	1634	Commander of Hornos in the Order of Alcántara. It is said of him that he was a good governor.^[2]
Álvaro de Quiñones Osorio	1634	1642	Knight of the Order of Santiago. For having founded the Villa de San Vicente to prevent the abuse of natives by indigo producers, he was granted the title of Marquis of Lorenzana.^[2]
Licentiate Diego de Avendaño	1642	1654	He was not open to receiving gifts, and when he died in office he was replaced by the senior oidor Antonio de Lara Mongrovejo.^[81]
Fernando de Altamirano y Velasco	1654	1659	Count of Santiago Calimaya. According to the Royal Decree of December 25, 1657, King Philip IV was a relative of his. During his government serious altercations occurred among the leading criollos of the City of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala, and Brother Pedro de San José Betancur also lived there.^[81] The Guatemalan writer José Milla y Vidaurre wrote his novel Los Nazarenos based on the disputes among the criollos and on the figure of Brother Pedro.^[82]
General Martín Carlos de Mencos	1659	?	Knight of the Order of Santiago, among other distinctions. He was the first military governor and even went so far as to supply his own money for public works.^[81]
Sebastián Álvarez Alfonso	?	1670	Lord of the house of Caldas. He was the promoter of the construction of the second cathedral church of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala.^[81]
Doctor D. Juan de Santo-Matía	1670	1672	Bishop of the Diocese of Guatemala. After being appointed visitor of Álvarez Alfonso, he remained as president of the audiencia, governor and captain general.^[81]
General Fernando Francisco de Escobedo	1672	1675?	General of artillery. He arrived in February 1672 to continue the visitation that Santo-Matía had begun and Licentiate Lope de Sierra Osorio had continued.^[81]
Licentiate Juan Miguel de Augurio y Alaba	1675?	1684	Knight of the Order of Alcántara. He arrived in February 1672 to continue the visitation that Santo-Matía had begun and Sierra Osorio had continued. He took office provisionally.^[81]
Enrique Henríquez de Guzmán	1684	1688	Member of the council of war and of the junta of the Indies and of fleets. He rebuilt the San Juan de Dios Hospital with five thousand pesos of his own and with a thousand obtained in alms from the faithful.^[83]
General Jacinto Barrios Leal	1688	1696	General of artillery. He was temporarily removed from office in 1691 after the arrival of the visitor Fernando López Urcino, but regained power three years later. He unsuccessfully undertook the conquest of Petén, the last indigenous kingdom that had not submitted to Spanish rule.^[83]
Gabriel Sánchez de Berrospe	1696	1702	At the end of his term, on returning to Spain, he made the journey through Chiapas, exercising government until he reached the border of the Captaincy General.^[83]
Doctor Alonso de Ceballos y Villagutierre	1702	1703	Presbyter. He died in office on October 27, 1703; he was temporarily succeeded by the senior oidor Juan Jerónimo Duardo.^[83]
Toribio José de Cosío y Campo	August 30, 1706	October 4, 1716	During his government the province of Tzendales in Chiapas rose up, so he had to travel there to restore peace; as a reward for his work, the Spanish Crown granted him the title of Marquis of Torre-Campo and the post of governor of the Philippines, where he moved in 1716.^[84]
Francisco Rodríguez de Rivas	October 4, 1716	December 1, 1724	Maestre de campo of the royal armies. During his government the San Miguel earthquakes of 1717 occurred, which destroyed the city of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala, and he donated from his own funds to rebuild the churches of the oratory of San Felipe Neri and the parish of El Calvario.^[85] ^[84] He opposed moving the city after the earthquakes, for which he was congratulated by the King,^[85] and at the end of his government he returned to Spain, where he died in Seville in 1743.^[84]
Antonio Pedro de Echevers y Suvisa	December 2, 1724	July 11, 1733	Member of the Order of Calatrava, gentleman of the chamber of the King of Spain and lord of the Golden Key.^[86] During his government there were complaints from the natives in Nicaragua and from the cabildo of Granada against the governor of the region, Antonio Poveda. Echevers y Suvisa sponsored with his own money the construction of the church of Santa Clara in Santiago de los Caballeros.^[87] He fell out with the rest of the Oidores of the Real Audiencia after the murder of the presbyter José de Orozco and banished them; but the people defended them and brought them into a church, requesting asylum for them. For this he was replaced in 1733, and he died on December 25 of that year in Santiago de los Caballeros.^[88]
Pedro de Rivera y Villalón	July 11, 1733	October 16, 1742	Field marshal of the royal armies. He arrived from Veracruz, where he was governor,^[88] and reopened the school of San Buenaventura. He governed the kingdom with great tranquility and was considered the best public administrator the Captaincy General had had until then.^[87]^[88]
Licentiate Tomás de Rivera y Santa Cruz	October 16, 1742	September 26, 1748	Native of Lima. He was removed in 1748 after serious accusations against him and, after being acquitted of them, was sent to Mexico City as alcalde del crimen.^[87] He died in that city in 1765.^[88]
José de Araujo y Río	September 26, 1748	1751	While president of the kingdom of Quito he had disagreements with the Oidores and was sent to the Court of the King of Spain, who sent him to Guatemala to finish the two years remaining in his term as governor.^[88] After finishing his term in 1751 he went to Peru.
José Vásquez Priego Montaos y Sotomayor	January 17, 1752	June 24, 1753	Member of the Order of Santiago and lieutenant general of the royal armies. He was commanding general of the field line at Gibraltar. He began the construction of the Fortress of San Fernando at Omoa, Honduras, but when he went to visit the works he fell ill and died shortly afterward in 1753.^[89] During his short government he created the alcaldías mayores of Chimaltenango and Sacatepéquez.^[88]
Alonso de Arcos y Moreno	1754	1756	Member of the Order of Santiago and field marshal of the royal armies. He died in 1756, shortly before receiving the appointment of lieutenant general. He was replaced on an interim basis by the senior oidor Velarde.^[90]
Alonso Fernández de Heredia	1761	1765	Field marshal of the royal armies. He had already been governor of Nicaragua, Comayagua, Florida and Yucatán; he donated four thousand pesos for the construction of the Church of La Merced in Santiago de los Caballeros.^[90]
Pedro de Salazar y Herrera Natera y Mendoza	1765	1771	Knight of the Order of Montesa, captain of grenadiers of the Spanish royal guards and field marshal of the royal armies. He died in 1771 after contracting an illness during a visit to the Castle of Omoa. He was temporarily replaced by the senior oidor González Bustillo.^[91]
Martín de Mayorga	1773	1779	Field marshal of the royal armies. Barely a month after his arrival in Guatemala, the city of Santiago de los Caballeros was destroyed by the Santa Marta earthquakes, so he decided to move the capital to the Valley of La Ermita in 1776. In 1779 he was appointed Viceroy of Mexico.^[92]
Matías de Gálvez	1779	1783	Lieutenant general of the army and distinguished Spanish gentleman. With Guatemalan forces he attacked the English on the island of Roatán and managed to expel them; as a reward for this action, in 1783 he was appointed Viceroy of Mexico.^[92]
José de Estachería	1783	1789	Brigadier of the army. During his government the fountain of Charles III was installed in the Plaza de Armas of Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción.^{[lower-alpha 11]} He returned to Spain in 1789.^[92]
Bernardo Troncoso Martínez del Rincón	1789	1794	Lieutenant general of the army. He established the coliseum to present theatrical comedies to the population, since it was prone to drunkenness and to committing violent crimes.^[92]
José Domas y Valle	1794	1801	Squadron commander. After retiring, he died in 1802 in the city of Guatemala at the age of 102.^[92]
Antonio González Mollinedo y Saravia	1801	1811	Field marshal. A distinguished and decorated military man with connections at the court of the Spanish King. In 1811 he was transferred to Mexico as lieutenant general of the forces that fought against the pro-independence fighters in the region.^[93]
José de Bustamante y Guerra	1811	1818	Lieutenant general of the Navy. He fiercely persecuted the pro-independence movements.^[94]
Carlos de Urrutia y Montoya	1818	1820	Lieutenant general of the army. Because of his advanced age and frailty he was unable to govern in adverse circumstances and ended up delegating command to Gabino Gaínza.^[94]
Gabino Gaínza	1820	September 15, 1821	He governed until the Independence of Central America, which was signed on September 15, 1821.^[94]

Captain General Antonio González Mollinedo y Saravia. Engraving by Garci-Aguirre from 1807.

The captain general of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, who exercised military command, was generally the governor general of the Kingdom of Guatemala and the president of the Audiencia and Royal Chancery of Santiago de Guatemala.

Ecclesiastical organization

Catholicism was brought to the Americas by the Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century, who, unlike the other colonialist nations in Europe, insisted on converting the natives of their colonies to the religion of the State. At that time, the Catholic Church had absolute power over the subjects of the Spanish Crown, and the ecclesiastical authorities were as important as the Kings of Spain.^[95] The principal religious orders of the Regular Clergy arrived in the Kingdom of Central America. They held considerable political and economic power and owned large tracts of land, encomiendas, sugar mills and buildings in the capital of the Kingdom, mainly in Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala and later in Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción. The Diocese of Santiago de Guatemala was erected on December 18, 1534. In 1539 the Diocese of Chiapas was erected in Ciudad Real.

Doctrinas de indios

The Spanish Crown focused on the catechization of the natives; the congregations founded by the royal missionaries in the New World were called «doctrinas de indios» or simply «doctrinas».^[96] Originally, the friars had only a temporary mission: to teach the Catholic faith to the natives, and then give way to secular parishes like those established in Spain; to this end, the friars were to have taught the Gospels and the Spanish language to the natives.^[96] Once the natives had been catechized and spoke Spanish, they could begin to live in parishes and to contribute the tithe, as the peninsulares did.^[97]

But this plan was never carried out, mainly because the Crown lost control of the regular orders as soon as their members embarked for America.^[98]^[99] Moreover, protected by their apostolic privileges to assist in the conversion of the natives, the missionaries answered only to the authority of their priors and provincials, and not to that of the Spanish authorities or of the bishops. The provincials of the orders, in turn, were accountable only to the leaders of their order and not to the Crown; once they had established a doctrina, they protected their interests in it, even against the interests of the King, and in this way the doctrinas became Indian towns that remained established for the entire rest of the colonial period.^[97]

The doctrinas were founded at the discretion of the friars, since they had complete freedom to establish communities to catechize the natives, in the hope that these would in time pass to the jurisdiction of a secular parish to which the tithe would be paid; in reality, what happened was that the doctrinas grew without control and never passed to the control of parishes.^[97] Collective administration by the group of friars was the most important characteristic of the doctrinas, since it guaranteed the continuation of the community system should one of its leaders die.^[100]

Until February 12, 1546, the date on which the Archdiocese of Mexico was erected by means of the bull Super universæ orbis ecclesiæ, the dioceses of Chiapas and Guatemala were suffragans of the Archdiocese of Seville.^[101] From that moment on they became suffragans of Mexico, and Bishop Francisco Marroquín then divided the administration of the central valley of Guatemala between the friars of the Order of Preachers and the Franciscans.^[102] El Barrio —the modern departments of San Marcos and Huehuetenango— was assigned to the Mercedarians.^[102]

The prior of the convent of the Order of Preachers was in charge of other neighborhoods and towns near the city of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala, for which he appointed vicars: that of the neighborhood of La Candelaria, that of the neighborhood of Santa Cruz —which included Milpas Altas— and that of the neighborhood of San Pedro de las Huertas.^[103] According to what Juarros reported in 1818, in the city of Santiago de los Caballeros the regular orders administered only Indian doctrinas, especially in the Dominican curacies of Candelaria and Jocotenango, since the ladinos attended the secular parish of San Sebastián.^[104]

At the end of the 16th century the Franciscan friars began to use dance-dramas to catechize the natives. The Dance of the Conquest, for example, is a staging based on the dance of Moors and Christians^{[lower-alpha 12]}^[105] which the religious used so that the natives would think that the Conquest of Guatemala had been possible thanks to spiritual forces that, superior to them, accompanied and protected the Spaniards.^[106]^[107] A manuscript of the Dance of the Conquest exists, written in verse and in Spanish. The text describes the conquest of the K'iche' natives by the Spaniards. The plot begins with the arrival of the Spanish ambassadors before the K'iche' King. Worried about the invasion of his lands, the King asks for the support of the governor of Xelajú, Tecún Umán. Finally, the training between the two armies takes place, culminating in hand-to-hand combat between both leaders, Pedro de Alvarado and Tecún Umán. In this battle the Quiché hero is killed. His successor declares the end of the war and accepts conversion to Christianity.^[107]

In 1638, the Dominicans separated their large doctrinas —which represented considerable income for them— into groups centered on their six convents:^[108]

Dominican doctrinas in the Captaincy General of Guatemala in 1638
Convent	Doctrinas	Convent	Doctrinas
Guatemala	Chimaltenango Jocotenango Sumpango San Juan Sacatepéquez San Pedro Sacatepéquez Santiago Sacatepéquez Rabinal San Martín Jilotepeque Escuintla Milpas Altas Milpas Bajas San Lucas Sacatepéquez Barrio de Santo Domingo	Amatitlán	Amatitlán Petapa Mixco San Cristóbal
		Verapaz	Cahabón Cobán Chamelco San Cristóbal Tactic
		Sonsonate	Nahuizalco Tacuxcalco^[109]
San Salvador	Apastepeque Chontales Cojutepeque Cuscatlán Milpas Bajas Tonacatepeque	Sacapulas	Sacapulas Cunén Nebaj Santa Cruz San Andrés Sajcabajá Zacualpa Chichicastenango

The historian Domingo Juarros wrote that in 1754, by virtue of a Royal Decree that was part of the Bourbon Reforms, all the curacies of the regular orders were transferred to the secular clergy.^[104]

Episcopate of Bernadino Villalpando

Upon arriving in Guatemala in 1564, Bishop Bernardino Villalpando realized that the diocese lacked the necessary support of secular priests to extend his authority. The friars belonging to the powerful regular orders^{[lower-alpha 13]} had formed their doctrinas, but they answered to the Spanish Crown through their own prelates and provincials, and refused to recognize the authority of the bishops. But around that time the decrees of the Council of Trent were proclaimed, and they were ratified by King Philip II: through these decrees, Catholic bishops were given responsibility over all the religious living within the confines of their respective dioceses, regardless of whether the religious were regular or secular.^{[lower-alpha 14]}^[110]

The decrees of the council granted him new canonical rights to subject the regular orders to his command; had he been successful in his undertaking, he would have been the true hierarch of the Catholic Church in Guatemala, and not merely the head of the secular clergy. The regular orders flatly opposed his intentions, resisting any attempt at episcopal authority by taking refuge in the exemptions and privileges that had been granted to them temporarily for the «conversion» of the natives. The bishop attempted to impose his authority because the monastic privileges were intolerable to him: they preached with catechisms that had not been approved by the bishop, and all the monastic friars resisted being inspected by the hierarch of the diocese.^[110]

Although he counted on the support of the Spanish Crown and the decrees of the Council of Trent, Villalpando did not have enough power to impose his authority over the regular orders. The orders managed to keep the bishop's authority at bay because they controlled all the settlements of the region and the bishop did not have enough secular priests to replace the friars. And when Villalpando threatened to withdraw their authority to administer the sacraments, the orders in turn threatened him, saying that they would abandon the city, and then they succeeded in having the Captain General condemn him on charges of abuse of authority.^[110]

Villalpando was the only bishop of Guatemala in a hundred years who dared to confront the power of the regular orders.^[111]

In the mid-18th century the Diccionario de autoridades defined a doctrina as a group of Indian settlements, reserved for a particular regular order, to which it had been granted in perpetuity as a reward for having civilized the inhabitants and converted them to the Catholic religion. By then, therefore, the regular orders had definitively kept their doctrinas, since no one handed them over: they simply did not return them as the original plan had called for.

Regular clergy

The following table summarizes the regular orders that established themselves in the Captaincy General of Guatemala, and their possessions:

Congregation	Clergy	Properties
Dominicans	Regular	Convents Haciendas Sugar mills Doctrinas and Indian lands
Mercedarians	Regular	Convents Haciendas Sugar mills Doctrinas
Jesuits	Regular	Convents Haciendas Sugar mills Colleges and seminaries
Recollects	Regular	Convents
Conceptionists	Regular	Convents Haciendas

Secular clergy

Diocese of Verapaz

After a series of incidents in Hispaniola, the Audiencia of the island allowed Bartolomé de las Casas to accept the invitation of Fray Tomás de Berlanga, who had just been made bishop of Peru, to go to New Granada in 1534. Both embarked for Panama, intending to continue overland to Lima, but during the voyage a storm carried the ship to Nicaragua, where he decided to settle in the Convent of Granada. In 1535, he proposed to the King and the Council of the Indies to begin a peaceful colonization in unexplored interior areas of the Guatemalan kingdom; however, despite the interest shown by the councilors of the Indies Bernal Díaz de Luco and Mercado de Peñaloza, the request was rejected. In 1536 the governor of Nicaragua, Rodrigo de Contreras, organized a military expedition, but Las Casas managed to postpone it for a couple of years by informing Queen Isabella of Portugal, wife of Charles V. Faced with the hostility of the authorities, Las Casas decided to leave Nicaragua and headed for Guatemala.^[112]

In November 1536, Las Casas settled in the city of Santiago de Guatemala; months later Bishop Juan Garcés, who was his friend, invited him to move to Tlascala, but after a brief period he returned to Guatemala. On May 2, 1537 he obtained from the governor, Licentiate Alfonso de Maldonado, the Capitulations of Tezulutlán, a written commitment, ratified on July 6, 1539 by the Viceroy of Mexico Antonio de Mendoza, that the natives of Tezulutlán, once conquered, would not be given in encomienda but would be vassals of the Crown.^[113] Las Casas, together with Friars Rodrigo de Landa, Pedro de Angulo and Luis de Cáncer, sought out four Christian Indians and taught them Christian songs explaining basic points of the Gospel. Luis de Cáncer was received by the cacique of Sacapulas and managed to perform the first baptisms of the inhabitants. Later, Las Casas led a party that brought gifts to the Indians and impressed their cacique, who decided to convert to Christianity and become a preacher to his vassals. The cacique was baptized with the name «Don Juan» and the natives consented to the construction of a church; but another cacique named Cobán burned it down. «Don Juan», together with sixty men, Las Casas and Pedro de Angulo, went to speak with the Indians of Cobán and convinced them of their good intentions;^[114] «Don Juan» then took the initiative of marrying one of his daughters to the principal of Cobán under the Catholic religion. Thus was born the first doctrina in the Verapaz.

In 1539 Pope Paul III had authorized the creation of the episcopal see of Ciudad Real.^{[lower-alpha 15]} In 1539 Alonso de Maldonado, under pressure from the Spanish settlers, began a campaign in Tezulutlán and distributed the natives under the encomienda regime. This flagrant violation of the capitulations was protested by Las Casas, who traveled to Spain to denounce the events before King Charles I of Spain; concerned about the situation of the natives in America and heeding the demands of De las Casas and the new ideas of the law of nations spread by Francisco de Vitoria, the King convened the Council of the Indies through the Valladolid Commission or Junta de Valladolid. On January 9, 1540 a royal decree was issued ratifying the Capitulations of Tezulutlán and granting the Order of Preachers the protection of the territory of Verapaz. On October 17 of the same year, Cardinal García de Loaysa, who was president of the Council of the Indies, ordered the Audiencia and Chancery of Mexico to comply with the same provisions. On January 21, 1541, in the church of Seville, before a notary and town crier, the royal ratification of the Capitulations of Tezulutlán was published.^[115]

De las Casas was consecrated bishop of Chiapas in the Dominican convent of San Pablo, in Seville, on March 30, 1544. As bishop he devoted himself to recruiting missionaries, most of them Dominicans from the convent of San Esteban in Salamanca, to accompany him on his journey to Chiapas. He left Seville and arrived in Santo Domingo on September 8, 1544 with thirty missionaries. He was received with hostility by the Spaniards in the Americas, because the New Laws of the Indies had been decreed. On December 14, 1544 he left Santo Domingo for Chiapas, where he also endured the hostility of the settlers and of the governor, Francisco de Montejo.^[116] The following year, the bishop of Guatemala Francisco Marroquín made a visit to Tezulutlán and met with the Dominican fathers. In the city of Gracias a Dios, seat of the Audiencia de los Confines, he met with Las Casas and with the bishop of Nicaragua Antonio de Valdivieso; but there were great disagreements between Las Casas and Marroquín. Las Casas accused Marroquín of holding Indian slaves and Indians in repartimiento as well as preaching "harmful doctrine"; Marroquín for his part accused him of overstepping the limits of his jurisdiction. The conflict continued in Mexico City and it was concluded to favor the freedom of the Indians, a conclusion that was never put into practice: the pacification of the Lacandon Jungle was not completed and it was the favorite refuge of rebel Mayas for centuries.^[117]

Las Casas and Angulo founded the town of Rabinal, and Cobán was the head of the Catholic doctrina. After two years of effort the reduction system began to have relative success, as the natives moved to more accessible lands and towns were founded in the Spanish manner. The name "Tierra de Guerra" (Land of War) was replaced by that of "Vera Paz" (true peace), a name that became official in 1547.^[116]

Finally, in 1559 the Diocese of Verapaz was erected in Guatemala as a suffragan of Mexico, but it was suppressed in 1608 and its territory added to that of Santiago de Guatemala.

Diocese of Comayagua

In 1620 the Diocese of Comayagua, erected in 1531 in Trujillo, never occupied, and re-erected and transferred to Comayagua in 1561, became a suffragan of Mexico (previously it had been a suffragan of Santo Domingo).

In 1647 the Diocese of León in Nicaragua, erected on February 26, 1531 and a suffragan of Lima since 1546, became a suffragan of that of Mexico.

In 1743 Guatemala was elevated to a metropolitan archdiocese, with the dioceses of León in Nicaragua, Comayagua and Chiapas becoming its suffragans.

The Bourbon Reforms

In 1754, by virtue of a Royal Decree that was part of the Bourbon Reforms, all the curacies of the regular orders were transferred to the secular clergy.^[104]^[118]

In 1765 the Bourbon Reforms of the Spanish Crown were published, which sought to recover royal power over the colonies and increase tax collection.^[119]^[120] With these reforms, the estancos (state monopolies) were created to control the production of intoxicating beverages, tobacco, gunpowder, playing cards and cockfighting pits. The Royal Treasury auctioned the estanco annually and a private individual bought it, thus becoming the owner of the monopoly of a certain product. That same year four subdelegations of the Royal Treasury were created in San Salvador, Ciudad Real, Comayagua and León, and the political-administrative structure of the Kingdom of Guatemala changed to fifteen provinces:^[121]

In addition to this administrative redistribution, the Spanish Crown established a policy aimed at diminishing the power of the Catholic Church,^[122] which until then had been practically absolute over the Spanish vassals. The policy of diminishing the power of the Church was based on the Enlightenment and had six main points:

Decline of the Jesuit cultural legacy
A tendency toward a lay and secularized culture
A decidedly rationalist attitude, of Cartesian heritage
Valuing natural science over religious dogma
A critique of the role of the Church within society and of its derived bodies, above all the confraternities and brotherhoods.^[123]^[124]
Favoring regalism.

Expulsion of the Jesuits

On April 2, 1767 the 146 houses of the Jesuits were surrounded at dawn by the King's soldiers, and there they were informed of the expulsion order contained in the Pragmatic Sanction of 1767, which was justified:
«for very grave causes relating to the obligation in which I find myself constituted to maintain the subordination, tranquility and justice of my peoples, and other urgent, just and necessary ones that I reserve in my royal mind, using the supreme authority that the Almighty has placed in my hands for the protection of my vassals and respect for my Crown».

— Charles III^[125]

Another heavy blow to ecclesiastical interests was the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767. The spread of Jansenism —a doctrine and movement with a strong anti-Jesuit charge— and of the Enlightenment throughout the 18th century left certain aspects of Jesuit thought outdated, especially, according to Antonio Domínguez Ortiz, «their educational methods, and in general, their concept of authority and of the State. An increasingly laicized and more absolute monarchy began to regard the Jesuits not as useful collaborators, but as troublesome competitors». In addition, the conflicts with the regular orders continued.^[126]

When King Charles III came to the throne in 1759 the situation became difficult for the Jesuits, since, unlike his two predecessors, the new monarch was not favorable to the Society of Jesus, influenced by his mother Queen Elisabeth Farnese, who «always held a prejudice against them», and by the anti-Jesuit atmosphere that predominated at the court of Naples, from which he came.

2,641 Jesuits were expelled from Spain and 2,630 from the Indies. The former were gathered and embarked at certain ports, being initially received on the island of Corsica, which then belonged to the Republic of Genoa. But the following year the island fell into the power of the Monarchy of France, where the order had been banned since 1762, which forced Pope Clement XIII (Venice, 1693–Rome, 1769), Pontiff (1758–1769), to admit them into the Papal States, something he had until then refused to do. There they lived on the meager pension assigned to them by Charles III with the money obtained from the sale of some of their assets.^[127]

Historians of the 21st century relate the expulsion of the order to the regalist policy carried out by Charles III, taking advantage of the new powers in ecclesiastical matters that had been granted to the Crown by the Concordat of 1753, signed during the reign of Ferdinand VI, and which would constitute the most radical measure of that policy, directed precisely against the religious order most closely tied to the Pope because of its "fourth vow" of absolute obedience to him. Thus the expulsion "constitutes an act of force and the symbol of the attempt to control the Spanish Church. In that attempt, it is evident that the principal recipients of the message were the members of the regular clergy. The exemption of the religious was a constant concern of the government, and it sought to avoid direct dependence on Rome.^[128]

In Guatemala, the Jesuits abandoned their convent in the city of Santiago los Caballeros de Guatemala and their sugar mill was auctioned and sold to the Dominicans. For their part, the church and the San Borja college were placed in the charge of the dean of the Cathedral.^[129] Their haciendas passed into private hands, and it is believed that many of the sculptures and paintings that existed in the oratories of the haciendas are in private collections of the descendants of those who acquired the haciendas at the end of the 18th century.^[129]

Economy

Requerimiento of Palacios Rubios, encomiendas and repartimientos

There were three colonization mechanisms that the Spanish conquistadors used to appropriate the lands and labor of the natives: the Requerimiento of Palacios Rubios, the encomiendas and the repartimientos.

The Requerimiento, or Requerimiento of Palacios Rubios, was a Spanish text, created in the context of the Laws of Burgos and used during the conquest of America, which was to be read aloud by the conquistadors to groups, assemblies or authorities of the indigenous peoples, as a formal legal act of warning or notice prior to war. It was introduced into the Law of the Indies from 1512 onward as a consequence of the dissertations and deliberations of theologians and jurists convened by the regent King of Castile Ferdinand the Catholic to «deal with the affairs of the Indies and the good treatment of the Indians».

For the reading, they mostly relied on the help of religious and explorers who had learned the indigenous languages, or in other cases on natives who had learned to speak Spanish, to ensure that the content was understood. Such was the case during the episodes prior to the Mixtón War, when, after the Requerimiento had been read at least twenty times, the rebels ignored that warning and gathered more warriors, for which reason the Spaniards finally considered the confrontation a "just war".^[130]

The encomienda and the repartimiento were systems instituted by Christopher Columbus in the newly discovered Antilles. The repartimiento consisted of distributing lands and groups of natives as labor to work them, while the encomienda consisted of handing over groups of natives to Christianize them in exchange for their labor.^[131]

Tax burden

In 1576, Philip II instituted the alcabala established in the Laws of the Indies, by which it was obligatory to pay the Royal Treasury two percent on every purchase-sale, barter or exchange that was made.^[132]

The montepío of the indigo producers —to promote this article— was created in 1782 with one hundred thousand pesos granted from the tobacco revenue;^[133] this was exploited by large landowners who enjoyed the montepío funds but, circumventing the regulations, took over the debts of the producers and recovered the charge of the advances.^[134]

Agriculture

At the end of the 16th century the Audiencia of Guatemala informed the Crown that indigo had been discovered, which grew abundantly in the warm lands of the region, and asked for authorization to produce it using repartimientos of Indians. The King classified agricultural tasks into several categories; the first corresponded to the cultivation of cereals and the raising of livestock and allowed the use of indigenous labor, and in the second class he placed the cultivation of vineyards, olive groves and jiquilite —the raw material for indigo— because of the harm it caused to the workers.^[135]

In 1604 there were in Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala eighteen indigo works with plantations in Guazacapán, on the coast of Escuintla and in Jalpatagua in Guatemala, and in the districts of San Miguel, San Vicente and Sonsonate in El Salvador.^[133]

In 1635 the city of San Vicente de Lorenzana was founded with fifty Spanish families devoted to the production of indigo, who had been expelled from the Indian towns by the alcaldes mayores of the province of San Salvador in which they lived, in order to prevent the abuses they committed against the natives. The alcaldes mayores, in turn, had received orders from the Captain General Álvaro de Quiñones Osorio,^[133] who for this deed received the title of Marquis of Lorenzana.^[2]

In 1773, shortly after the ruin of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala by the Santa Marta earthquakes, Captain General Martín de Mayorga reported that the indigo harvests were below two million pesos, and in 1794 exports were already six hundred forty-one thousand pesos, and by 1802 they had reached one million nine hundred twenty-one thousand pesos, according to the report of the accounting office of the consulado de comercio.^[133]

Notes and references

Notes

↑ Captaincy General, Governorate and Real Audiencia.
↑ As universities were also called during the Spanish colonial period.
↑ The process prior to the issuance of the royal decree for the founding of San Carlos can be known through various documentary sources; among the most important is bundle 373 of the Audiencia de Guatemala collection in the General Archive of the Indies.
↑ On the initial enrollment of the university, the information is imprecise and contradictory. The estimate has been made on the basis of the data recorded in the university holdings found in the General Archive of Central America. AGCA. A1. Leg. 1885, Exp. 12245.
↑ Between 1677 and 1678 the competitive examinations were held to fill the seats or chairs at the university. The call was published both in Guatemala and in Mexico, from where it was also sent to Puebla de los Ángeles. The process took the university a year, but due to disagreements among those who were to elect the professors, the King decided to annul the appointments, leaving the professors in their posts but on an interim basis and with half the stipulated salary. The competitive examinations are found in AGCA. A1. Legs. 1898, 1899 and 40422. The royal decree of annulment dates from June 6, 1680, and is found in AGCA. A1. Leg. 1885, Exp. 12245.
↑ Two Spanish colonial settlements in Quintana Roo bore the name Bacalar. The main town of that name was Salamanca de Bacalar, often shortened to Bacalar, near Chetumal on the Caribbean coast. Bacalar-de-Chunjujub', modern Chunhuhub, was a small settlement on the road to Mérida. In this article, unless otherwise indicated, all references to Bacalar refer to Salamanca de Bacalar.^[20]
↑ The Ayuntamiento was also the work of Diego de Porres.
↑ It was not until 1819 that the conspirators were granted their freedom by means of a general amnesty
↑ In 1820 he was rewarded with the Grand Cross of the American Order of Isabella the Catholic and was appointed director general of the Navy until 1822. In 1823 he was a member of the Junta of expeditions to America, and a year later, he returned once again to the General Directorate of the Navy and worked at the Ministry of the Navy in Madrid until his death in 1825, his military rank being that of Lieutenant General
↑ Distinguished from the rest of the indigenous population and with privileges owing to their support for the European conquest
↑ It was moved to Seventh Avenue in 1896 by the government of José María Reina Barrios and finally transferred to the Plazuela España in Guatemala City.
↑ A dance also created by the Dominican friars to aid them in the catechization of the «infidels» in the 16th century; it represents the battles fought by the Castilians or Christians against the Moors, Arabs or Saracens in their effort to expel them from the Iberian Peninsula at the end of the 15th century.
↑ Dominicans, Franciscans, Jesuits and Mercedarians, principally.
↑ This authority extended in theory to the selection and ordination of priests; the authorization of licenses to administer the sacraments, celebrate Masses and hear confessions; and the right and responsibility to carry out inspection visits to the clergy.
↑ The episcopal see of Ciudad Real included Chiapas, Soconusco, the Vera Paz (including the Lacandon Jungle), Tabasco and the not-yet-conquered Yucatán Peninsula.

References

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 Molina Argüello & s.f., p. 2.
↑ ^2.00 ^2.01 ^2.02 ^2.03 ^2.04 ^2.05 ^2.06 ^2.07 ^2.08 ^2.09 ^2.10 ^2.11 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 92.
↑ "Mapa de las provincias de Nicaragua y Costa Rica" (in español). Retrieved April 18, 2013.
↑ ICEFI 2007, p. 38.
↑ Universidad de San Carlos 2006, p. 10.
↑ ^6.0 ^6.1 ^6.2 Ministerio de Educación - Gobierno de España 2004
↑ ^7.0 ^7.1 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 165.
↑ ^8.0 ^8.1 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 166.
↑ ^9.0 ^9.1 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 167.
↑ AFEHC: Fundación de la Real Audiencia de los Confines de Guatemala y Nicaragua
↑ Recopilación de Leyes de Indias 1680.
↑ ^12.0 ^12.1 Juarros 1818, p. 45-52. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFJuarros1818 (help)
↑ Esparza & s.f.
↑ Fumero 2010.
↑ Tate Lanning 1977, p. 8.
↑ ^16.0 ^16.1 ^16.2 ^16.3 ^16.4 Hernández de León 1930.
↑ ^17.0 ^17.1 ^17.2 Universidad de San Carlos 2007, p. 8.
↑ UNESCO 2002.
↑ ^19.0 ^19.1 ^19.2 Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 773.
↑ Jones 1998, p. 130.
↑ Means 1917, pp. 61–62, 64.
↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 774.
↑ Jones 1998, pp. 111, 132–133, 145.
↑ Jones 1998, p. 168.
↑ Jones 1998, p. 168-169.
↑ Jones 1998, pp. 171–172.
↑ Jones 1998, pp. 169–170.
↑ Jones 1998, pp. 170–171.
↑ Jones 1998, pp. 170, 187, 216–217.
↑ Jones 1998, p. 175.
↑ ^31.0 ^31.1 Jones 2000, p. 362.
↑ Jones 1998, p. 249.
↑ Jones 1998, pp. 245–246.
↑ Jones 1998, pp. 253, 256.
↑ Jones 1998, pp. xxvi, 252–253, 265.
↑ Jones 1998, p. 253.
↑ Jones 1998, p. 267.
↑ ^38.0 ^38.1 ^38.2 ^38.3 ^38.4 Jones 2009, p. 59.
↑ Jones 1998, pp. 253, 265–266.
↑ Jones 1998, pp. 252, 268.
↑ Jones 1998, p. 269-270.
↑ ^42.0 ^42.1 Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 777.
↑ Jones 1998, p. 295.
↑ Jones 1998, p. 297.
↑ Jones 1998, p. 298-299.
↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 777–778.
↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 778.
↑ Jones 1998, p. 306.
↑ Jones 1998, p. xix.
↑ Jones 1998, p. 117.
↑ Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 106. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMelchor_Toledo2011 (help)
↑ Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 103. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMelchor_Toledo2011 (help)
↑ ^53.0 ^53.1 Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 104. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMelchor_Toledo2011 (help)
↑ ^54.0 ^54.1 Rodríguez Girón, Flores & Garnica 1995, p. 585.
↑ Consejo Nacional para la Protección de la Antigua & s.f.
↑ Rodríguez Girón, Flores & Garnica 1995, p. 586.
↑ Commons de la Rosa & s.f.
↑ ^58.0 ^58.1 Gutiérrez y Ulloa, Antonio (2017). Estado general de la provincia de San Salvador: Reyno de GUatemala, año 1807 (in español). Academia Salvadoreña de la Historia. p. 21-23. ISBN 978-99961-308-0-9.
↑ Biblioteca Luis Ángel Arango
↑ "Ventajas competitivas de los estados pequeños centroamericanos" (PDF) (in español). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2016. Retrieved January 10, 2008.
↑ Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 132. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMelchor_Toledo2011 (help)
↑ ^62.0 ^62.1 ^62.2 Meléndez Chaverri 2000, p. 58.
↑ ^63.0 ^63.1 Meléndez Chaverri 2000, p. 59.
↑ Collado 1988, p. 74.
↑ ^65.0 ^65.1 Móbil 1991, p. 75.
↑ ^66.0 ^66.1 Pollack 2007.
↑ ^67.0 ^67.1 Móbil 1991
↑ Democracia Multicultural 2009
↑ ^69.0 ^69.1 ^69.2 ^69.3 Chandler 1978, p. 163.
↑ González Davison 2008, p. 10.
↑ González Davison 2008, p. 11.
↑ González Davison 2008, p. 12.
↑ ^73.0 ^73.1 ^73.2 ^73.3 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 91.
↑ Juarros 1818, p. 48. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFJuarros1818 (help)
↑ ^75.0 ^75.1 Juarros 1818, p. 49. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFJuarros1818 (help)
↑ Juarros 1818, pp. 49–50. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFJuarros1818 (help)
↑ Juarros 1818, p. 50. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFJuarros1818 (help)
↑ Hernández de León 1930, p. 549.
↑ Feldman 1998, p. 7.
↑ Feldman 1998, p. 8.
↑ ^81.0 ^81.1 ^81.2 ^81.3 ^81.4 ^81.5 ^81.6 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 93.
↑ Milla y Vidaurre, José (2006) [1867]. Los nazarenos (in español). Guatemala: Escolar Piedrasanta.
↑ ^83.0 ^83.1 ^83.2 ^83.3 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 94.
↑ ^84.0 ^84.1 ^84.2 Fuentes y Guzmán 1883, p. 182.
↑ ^85.0 ^85.1 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 94-95.
↑ Fuentes y Guzmán 1883, p. 182-183.
↑ ^87.0 ^87.1 ^87.2 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 95
↑ ^88.0 ^88.1 ^88.2 ^88.3 ^88.4 ^88.5 Fuentes y Guzmán 1883, p. 183
↑ Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 96
↑ ^90.0 ^90.1 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 96.
↑ Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 96-97.
↑ ^92.0 ^92.1 ^92.2 ^92.3 ^92.4 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 97.
↑ Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 97-98.
↑ ^94.0 ^94.1 ^94.2 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 98.
↑ Reverté 2011.
↑ ^96.0 ^96.1 van Oss 1986, pp. 17–19 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFvan_Oss1986 (help)
↑ ^97.0 ^97.1 ^97.2 van Oss 1986, p. 53 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFvan_Oss1986 (help)
↑ van Oss 1986, p. 25 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFvan_Oss1986 (help)
↑ van Oss, Adriaan C. (1986). Catholic Colonialism: A Parish History of Guatemala, 1524-1821. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
↑ van Oss 1986, p. 54. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFvan_Oss1986 (help)
↑ Padilla Pérez 2007.
↑ ^102.0 ^102.1 Juarros 1818, p. 336. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFJuarros1818 (help)
↑ Juarros 1818, pp. 336–337. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFJuarros1818 (help)
↑ ^104.0 ^104.1 ^104.2 Juarros 1818, p. 338. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFJuarros1818 (help)
↑ Marroquín Rojas 2009.
↑ Wikiguate n.d.
↑ ^107.0 ^107.1 Morales 2010.
↑ Belaubre, Christopohe (2001). "Poder y redes sociales en Centroamérica: el caso de la Orden de los Dominicos (1757-1829)" (PDF). Mesoamérica (in español). 41. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 21, 2015.
↑ Belaubre 2001, p. 39. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBelaubre2001 (help)
↑ ^110.0 ^110.1 ^110.2 van Oss 1986, p. 37. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFvan_Oss1986 (help)
↑ van Oss 1986, p. 38. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFvan_Oss1986 (help)
↑ Anabitarte 1991, p. 105.
↑ Anabitarte 1991, p. 107.
↑ Anabitarte 1991, p. 109.
↑ Yáñez 1992, p. 168.
↑ ^116.0 ^116.1 Pons Sáez 1997, p. XIX a XXIX.
↑ García Icazbalceta 1998, pp. 149–151.
↑ Juarros, Domingo (1818). Compendio de la historia de la Ciudad de Guatemala (in español). Guatemala: Ignacio Beteta. Book note: Br. Juarros was a secular presbyter and synodal examiner of the Archdiocese of Guatemala
↑ Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 110. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMelchor_Toledo2011 (help)
↑ Estrada Herrera, Fabiola. "Marco y propósitos generales de las Reformas Borbónicas" (PDF) (in español). Fundación Universidad Autónoma de Colombia: 3–4. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 27, 2015. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
↑ Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 111 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMelchor_Toledo2011 (help)
↑ Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 111. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMelchor_Toledo2011 (help)
↑ Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 112. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMelchor_Toledo2011 (help)
↑ Melchor Toledo, Johann Estuardo (2011). "El arte religioso de la Antigua Guatemala, 1773-1821; crónica de la emigración de sus imágenes" (PDF). Doctoral thesis in Art History (in español). Mexico City: National Autonomous University of Mexico. Retrieved November 10, 2014.
↑ Domínguez Ortiz 2005, p. 140.
↑ Domínguez Ortiz 2005, pp. 135–137.
↑ Domínguez Ortiz 2005, pp. 140–141.
↑ Mestre & Pérez García 2004, p. 522.
↑ ^129.0 ^129.1 Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 63. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMelchor_Toledo2011 (help)
↑ Carrillo Cázares, Alberto (2000) El debate sobre la guerra chichimeca p. 84, Mexico. ed. El Colegio de Michoacán ISBN 970-679-033-0
↑ Martínez Peláez, Severo (1976). La patria del criollo. Ensayo de interpretación de la realidad colonial guatemalteca (in español) (Fourth ed.). San José, Costa Rica: Universitaria Centroamericana (EDUCA). pp. 63–65.
↑ Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 157.
↑ ^133.0 ^133.1 ^133.2 ^133.3 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 158.
↑ Gómez Carrillo 1886, pp. 158–159.
↑ Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 156.

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Cadena, Felipe (1774). Breve descripción de la noble ciudad de Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala y puntual noticia de su lamentable ruina ocasionada de un violento terremoto el día veintinueve de julio de 1773 (PDF) (in español). Mixco, Guatemala: Oficina de Antonio Sánchez Cubillas.
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[1] Captaincy General, Governorate and Real Audiencia.

[19] As universities were also called during the Spanish colonial period.

[20] The process prior to the issuance of the royal decree for the founding of San Carlos can be known through various documentary sources; among the most important is bundle 373 of the Audiencia de Guatemala collection in the General Archive of the Indies.

[21] On the initial enrollment of the university, the information is imprecise and contradictory. The estimate has been made on the basis of the data recorded in the university holdings found in the General Archive of Central America. AGCA. A1. Leg. 1885, Exp. 12245.

[22] Between 1677 and 1678 the competitive examinations were held to fill the seats or chairs at the university. The call was published both in Guatemala and in Mexico, from where it was also sent to Puebla de los Ángeles. The process took the university a year, but due to disagreements among those who were to elect the professors, the King decided to annul the appointments, leaving the professors in their posts but on an interim basis and with half the stipulated salary. The competitive examinations are found in AGCA. A1. Legs. 1898, 1899 and 40422. The royal decree of annulment dates from June 6, 1680, and is found in AGCA. A1. Leg. 1885, Exp. 12245.

[26] Two Spanish colonial settlements in Quintana Roo bore the name Bacalar. The main town of that name was Salamanca de Bacalar, often shortened to Bacalar, near Chetumal on the Caribbean coast. Bacalar-de-Chunjujub', modern Chunhuhub, was a small settlement on the road to Mérida. In this article, unless otherwise indicated, all references to Bacalar refer to Salamanca de Bacalar.^[20]

[63] The Ayuntamiento was also the work of Diego de Porres.

[72] It was not until 1819 that the conspirators were granted their freedom by means of a general amnesty

[73] In 1820 he was rewarded with the Grand Cross of the American Order of Isabella the Catholic and was appointed director general of the Navy until 1822. In 1823 he was a member of the Junta of expeditions to America, and a year later, he returned once again to the General Directorate of the Navy and worked at the Ministry of the Navy in Madrid until his death in 1825, his military rank being that of Lieutenant General

[74] Distinguished from the rest of the indigenous population and with privileges owing to their support for the European conquest

[103] It was moved to Seventh Avenue in 1896 by the government of José María Reina Barrios and finally transferred to the Plazuela España in Guatemala City.

[116] A dance also created by the Dominican friars to aid them in the catechization of the «infidels» in the 16th century; it represents the battles fought by the Castilians or Christians against the Moors, Arabs or Saracens in their effort to expel them from the Iberian Peninsula at the end of the 15th century.

[122] Dominicans, Franciscans, Jesuits and Mercedarians, principally.

[123] This authority extended in theory to the selection and ordination of priests; the authorization of licenses to administer the sacraments, celebrate Masses and hear confessions; and the right and responsibility to carry out inspection visits to the clergy.

[129] The episcopal see of Ciudad Real included Chiapas, Soconusco, the Vera Paz (including the Lacandon Jungle), Tabasco and the not-yet-conquered Yucatán Peninsula.

[FOOTNOTEMolina_Argüellos.f.2-2] 1.0 ^1.1 Molina Argüello & s.f., p. 2.

[FOOTNOTEGómez_Carrillo188692-3] 2.00 ^2.01 ^2.02 ^2.03 ^2.04 ^2.05 ^2.06 ^2.07 ^2.08 ^2.09 ^2.10 ^2.11 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 92.

[WDL1-4] "Mapa de las provincias de Nicaragua y Costa Rica" (in español). Retrieved April 18, 2013.

[FOOTNOTEICEFI200738-5] ICEFI 2007, p. 38.

[FOOTNOTEUniversidad_de_San_Carlos200610-6] Universidad de San Carlos 2006, p. 10.

[ministerioespaña-7] 6.0 ^6.1 ^6.2 Ministerio de Educación - Gobierno de España 2004

[FOOTNOTEGómez_Carrillo1886165-8] 7.0 ^7.1 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 165.

[FOOTNOTEGómez_Carrillo1886166-9] 8.0 ^8.1 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 166.

[FOOTNOTEGómez_Carrillo1886167-10] 9.0 ^9.1 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 167.

[11] AFEHC: Fundación de la Real Audiencia de los Confines de Guatemala y Nicaragua

[FOOTNOTERecopilación_de_Leyes_de_Indias1680-12] Recopilación de Leyes de Indias 1680.

[FOOTNOTEJuarros181845-52-13] 12.0 ^12.1 Juarros 1818, p. 45-52. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFJuarros1818 (help)

[FOOTNOTEEsparzas.f.-14] Esparza & s.f.

[FOOTNOTEFumero2010-15] Fumero 2010.

[FOOTNOTETate_Lanning19778-16] Tate Lanning 1977, p. 8.

[FOOTNOTEHernández_de_León1930-17] 16.0 ^16.1 ^16.2 ^16.3 ^16.4 Hernández de León 1930.

[FOOTNOTEUniversidad_de_San_Carlos20078-18] 17.0 ^17.1 ^17.2 Universidad de San Carlos 2007, p. 8.

[FOOTNOTEUNESCO2002-23] UNESCO 2002.

[FOOTNOTESharerTraxler2006773-24] 19.0 ^19.1 ^19.2 Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 773.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998130-25] Jones 1998, p. 130.

[FOOTNOTEMeans191761–62,_64-27] Means 1917, pp. 61–62, 64.

[FOOTNOTESharerTraxler2006774-28] Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 774.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998111,_132–133,_145-29] Jones 1998, pp. 111, 132–133, 145.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998168-30] Jones 1998, p. 168.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998168-169-31] Jones 1998, p. 168-169.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998171–172-32] Jones 1998, pp. 171–172.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998169–170-33] Jones 1998, pp. 169–170.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998170–171-34] Jones 1998, pp. 170–171.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998170,_187,_216–217-35] Jones 1998, pp. 170, 187, 216–217.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998175-36] Jones 1998, p. 175.

[FOOTNOTEJones2000362-37] 31.0 ^31.1 Jones 2000, p. 362.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998249-38] Jones 1998, p. 249.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998245–246-39] Jones 1998, pp. 245–246.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998253,_256-40] Jones 1998, pp. 253, 256.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998xxvi,_252–253,_265-41] Jones 1998, pp. xxvi, 252–253, 265.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998253-42] Jones 1998, p. 253.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998267-43] Jones 1998, p. 267.

[FOOTNOTEJones200959-44] 38.0 ^38.1 ^38.2 ^38.3 ^38.4 Jones 2009, p. 59.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998253,_265–266-45] Jones 1998, pp. 253, 265–266.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998252,_268-46] Jones 1998, pp. 252, 268.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998269-270-47] Jones 1998, p. 269-270.

[FOOTNOTESharerTraxler2006777-48] 42.0 ^42.1 Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 777.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998295-49] Jones 1998, p. 295.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998297-50] Jones 1998, p. 297.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998298-299-51] Jones 1998, p. 298-299.

[FOOTNOTESharerTraxler2006777–778-52] Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 777–778.

[FOOTNOTESharerTraxler2006778-53] Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 778.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998306-54] Jones 1998, p. 306.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998xix-55] Jones 1998, p. xix.

[FOOTNOTEJones1998117-56] Jones 1998, p. 117.

[FOOTNOTEMelchor_Toledo2011106-57] Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 106. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMelchor_Toledo2011 (help)

[FOOTNOTEMelchor_Toledo2011103-58] Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 103. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMelchor_Toledo2011 (help)

[FOOTNOTEMelchor_Toledo2011104-59] 53.0 ^53.1 Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 104. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMelchor_Toledo2011 (help)

[FOOTNOTERodríguez_GirónFloresGarnica1995585-60] 54.0 ^54.1 Rodríguez Girón, Flores & Garnica 1995, p. 585.

[FOOTNOTEConsejo_Nacional_para_la_Protección_de_la_Antiguas.f.-61] Consejo Nacional para la Protección de la Antigua & s.f.

[FOOTNOTERodríguez_GirónFloresGarnica1995586-62] Rodríguez Girón, Flores & Garnica 1995, p. 586.

[FOOTNOTECommons_de_la_Rosas.f.-64] Commons de la Rosa & s.f.

[:0-65] 58.0 ^58.1 Gutiérrez y Ulloa, Antonio (2017). Estado general de la provincia de San Salvador: Reyno de GUatemala, año 1807 (in español). Academia Salvadoreña de la Historia. p. 21-23. ISBN 978-99961-308-0-9.

[66] Biblioteca Luis Ángel Arango

[67] "Ventajas competitivas de los estados pequeños centroamericanos" (PDF) (in español). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2016. Retrieved January 10, 2008.

[FOOTNOTEMelchor_Toledo2011132-68] Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 132. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMelchor_Toledo2011 (help)

[FOOTNOTEMeléndez_Chaverri200058-69] 62.0 ^62.1 ^62.2 Meléndez Chaverri 2000, p. 58.

[FOOTNOTEMeléndez_Chaverri200059-70] 63.0 ^63.1 Meléndez Chaverri 2000, p. 59.

[FOOTNOTECollado198874-71] Collado 1988, p. 74.

[FOOTNOTEMóbil199175-75] 65.0 ^65.1 Móbil 1991, p. 75.

[FOOTNOTEPollack2007-76] 66.0 ^66.1 Pollack 2007.

[mobil1-77] 67.0 ^67.1 Móbil 1991

[democracia-78] Democracia Multicultural 2009

[FOOTNOTEChandler1978163-79] 69.0 ^69.1 ^69.2 ^69.3 Chandler 1978, p. 163.

[FOOTNOTEGonzález_Davison200810-80] González Davison 2008, p. 10.

[FOOTNOTEGonzález_Davison200811-81] González Davison 2008, p. 11.

[FOOTNOTEGonzález_Davison200812-82] González Davison 2008, p. 12.

[FOOTNOTEGómez_Carrillo188691-83] 73.0 ^73.1 ^73.2 ^73.3 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 91.

[FOOTNOTEJuarros181848-84] Juarros 1818, p. 48. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFJuarros1818 (help)

[FOOTNOTEJuarros181849-85] 75.0 ^75.1 Juarros 1818, p. 49. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFJuarros1818 (help)

[FOOTNOTEJuarros181849–50-86] Juarros 1818, pp. 49–50. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFJuarros1818 (help)

[FOOTNOTEJuarros181850-87] Juarros 1818, p. 50. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFJuarros1818 (help)

[FOOTNOTEHernández_de_León1930549-88] Hernández de León 1930, p. 549.

[FOOTNOTEFeldman19987-89] Feldman 1998, p. 7.

[FOOTNOTEFeldman19988-90] Feldman 1998, p. 8.

[FOOTNOTEGómez_Carrillo188693-91] 81.0 ^81.1 ^81.2 ^81.3 ^81.4 ^81.5 ^81.6 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 93.

[92] Milla y Vidaurre, José (2006) [1867]. Los nazarenos (in español). Guatemala: Escolar Piedrasanta.

[FOOTNOTEGómez_Carrillo188694-93] 83.0 ^83.1 ^83.2 ^83.3 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 94.

[FOOTNOTEFuentes_y_Guzmán1883182-94] 84.0 ^84.1 ^84.2 Fuentes y Guzmán 1883, p. 182.

[FOOTNOTEGómez_Carrillo188694-95-95] 85.0 ^85.1 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 94-95.

[FOOTNOTEFuentes_y_Guzmán1883182-183-96] Fuentes y Guzmán 1883, p. 182-183.

[gomez95-97] 87.0 ^87.1 ^87.2 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 95

[fuentes183-98] 88.0 ^88.1 ^88.2 ^88.3 ^88.4 ^88.5 Fuentes y Guzmán 1883, p. 183

[gomez96-99] Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 96

[FOOTNOTEGómez_Carrillo188696-100] 90.0 ^90.1 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 96.

[FOOTNOTEGómez_Carrillo188696-97-101] Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 96-97.

[FOOTNOTEGómez_Carrillo188697-102] 92.0 ^92.1 ^92.2 ^92.3 ^92.4 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 97.

[FOOTNOTEGómez_Carrillo188697-98-104] Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 97-98.

[FOOTNOTEGómez_Carrillo188698-105] 94.0 ^94.1 ^94.2 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 98.

[FOOTNOTEReverté2011-106] Reverté 2011.

[vanoss17-107] 96.0 ^96.1 van Oss 1986, pp. 17–19 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFvan_Oss1986 (help)

[vanoss53-108] 97.0 ^97.1 ^97.2 van Oss 1986, p. 53 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFvan_Oss1986 (help)

[vanoss25-109] van Oss 1986, p. 25 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFvan_Oss1986 (help)

[110] van Oss, Adriaan C. (1986). Catholic Colonialism: A Parish History of Guatemala, 1524-1821. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

[FOOTNOTEvan_Oss198654-111] van Oss 1986, p. 54. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFvan_Oss1986 (help)

[FOOTNOTEPadilla_Pérez2007-112] Padilla Pérez 2007.

[FOOTNOTEJuarros1818336-113] 102.0 ^102.1 Juarros 1818, p. 336. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFJuarros1818 (help)

[FOOTNOTEJuarros1818336–337-114] Juarros 1818, pp. 336–337. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFJuarros1818 (help)

[FOOTNOTEJuarros1818338-115] 104.0 ^104.1 ^104.2 Juarros 1818, p. 338. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFJuarros1818 (help)

[FOOTNOTEMarroquín_Rojas2009-117] Marroquín Rojas 2009.

[FOOTNOTEWikiguaten.d.-118] Wikiguate n.d.

[FOOTNOTEMorales2010-119] 107.0 ^107.1 Morales 2010.

[belaubre-120] Belaubre, Christopohe (2001). "Poder y redes sociales en Centroamérica: el caso de la Orden de los Dominicos (1757-1829)" (PDF). Mesoamérica (in español). 41. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 21, 2015.

[FOOTNOTEBelaubre200139-121] Belaubre 2001, p. 39. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBelaubre2001 (help)

[FOOTNOTEvan_Oss198637-124] 110.0 ^110.1 ^110.2 van Oss 1986, p. 37. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFvan_Oss1986 (help)

[FOOTNOTEvan_Oss198638-125] van Oss 1986, p. 38. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFvan_Oss1986 (help)

[FOOTNOTEAnabitarte1991105-126] Anabitarte 1991, p. 105.

[FOOTNOTEAnabitarte1991107-127] Anabitarte 1991, p. 107.

[FOOTNOTEAnabitarte1991109-128] Anabitarte 1991, p. 109.

[FOOTNOTEYáñez1992168-130] Yáñez 1992, p. 168.

[FOOTNOTEPons_Sáez1997XIX_a_XXIX-131] 116.0 ^116.1 Pons Sáez 1997, p. XIX a XXIX.

[FOOTNOTEGarcía_Icazbalceta1998149–151-132] García Icazbalceta 1998, pp. 149–151.

[133] Juarros, Domingo (1818). Compendio de la historia de la Ciudad de Guatemala (in español). Guatemala: Ignacio Beteta. Book note: Br. Juarros was a secular presbyter and synodal examiner of the Archdiocese of Guatemala

[FOOTNOTEMelchor_Toledo2011110-134] Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 110. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMelchor_Toledo2011 (help)

[estrada-135] Estrada Herrera, Fabiola. "Marco y propósitos generales de las Reformas Borbónicas" (PDF) (in español). Fundación Universidad Autónoma de Colombia: 3–4. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 27, 2015. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[melchor111-136] Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 111 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMelchor_Toledo2011 (help)

[FOOTNOTEMelchor_Toledo2011111-137] Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 111. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMelchor_Toledo2011 (help)

[FOOTNOTEMelchor_Toledo2011112-138] Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 112. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMelchor_Toledo2011 (help)

[139] Melchor Toledo, Johann Estuardo (2011). "El arte religioso de la Antigua Guatemala, 1773-1821; crónica de la emigración de sus imágenes" (PDF). Doctoral thesis in Art History (in español). Mexico City: National Autonomous University of Mexico. Retrieved November 10, 2014.

[FOOTNOTEDomínguez_Ortiz2005140-140] Domínguez Ortiz 2005, p. 140.

[FOOTNOTEDomínguez_Ortiz2005135–137-141] Domínguez Ortiz 2005, pp. 135–137.

[FOOTNOTEDomínguez_Ortiz2005140–141-142] Domínguez Ortiz 2005, pp. 140–141.

[FOOTNOTEMestrePérez_García2004522-143] Mestre & Pérez García 2004, p. 522.

[FOOTNOTEMelchor_Toledo201163-144] 129.0 ^129.1 Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 63. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMelchor_Toledo2011 (help)

[145] Carrillo Cázares, Alberto (2000) El debate sobre la guerra chichimeca p. 84, Mexico. ed. El Colegio de Michoacán ISBN 970-679-033-0

[severo1-146] Martínez Peláez, Severo (1976). La patria del criollo. Ensayo de interpretación de la realidad colonial guatemalteca (in español) (Fourth ed.). San José, Costa Rica: Universitaria Centroamericana (EDUCA). pp. 63–65.

[FOOTNOTEGómez_Carrillo1886157-147] Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 157.

[FOOTNOTEGómez_Carrillo1886158-148] 133.0 ^133.1 ^133.2 ^133.3 Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 158.

[FOOTNOTEGómez_Carrillo1886158–159-149] Gómez Carrillo 1886, pp. 158–159.

[FOOTNOTEGómez_Carrillo1886156-150] Gómez Carrillo 1886, p. 156.

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