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University of San Carlos of Guatemala
| University of San Carlos of Guatemala | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Acronym | USAC |
| Motto | Go and teach all |
| Established | January 31, 1676 |
| Type | Public and Autonomous |
| Rector | Lic. Pablo Ernesto Oliva Soto |
| Students | 235,212 (2019) |
| Campus | Ciudad Universitaria, Zone 12, Guatemala City |
| Address | Ciudad Universitaria 11ª Avenida, Zona 12 |
| City | Guatemala |
| Country | Guatemala |
| Telephone | (502) 2418 8000 |
| Website | [1] |
The University of San Carlos of Guatemala (Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, also known and referred to by its acronym: USAC) is the largest and oldest university in Guatemala, and also the only national university in that Central American country.
It is the fourth university founded in America. It was established in the Captaincy General of Guatemala during the viceregal period and remained the only university in Guatemala until 1954.[lower-alpha 1]
In 2021, USAC ranked 151st in the QS Latin American University Rankings of the academic ranking of universities in Latin America, and second in Guatemala.[3]
The university has had five eras:
- Royal and Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo (1676–1829): Established during the viceregal period by the Spanish Crown in the 17th century, approved by the Holy See and run by the regular orders of the Catholic Church. After independence in 1821 it was called simply the Pontifical University.
- Academy of Sciences (1834–1840): a secular institution created during the Central American Federation by the liberal governor Mariano Gálvez.
- National and Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo (1840–1875): an ecclesiastical institution run by the regular orders during the governments of Rafael Carrera and Vicente Cerna y Cerna, ratified by the Concordat of Guatemala of 1854.[4][5]
- National University of Guatemala (1875–1944): a secular positivist institution divided into the faculty schools of Law and Notarial Studies, Medicine, and Pharmacy. Briefly, between 1918 and 1920, it was called the "Estrada Cabrera" University.
- University of San Carlos of Guatemala (1944–present): a secular institution with a social orientation established after the Revolution of 1944.
The university tradition of Guatemala and Central America dates back to the 17th century, when institutions, studies and chairs in the sciences of the time were created under various names: founded on January 31, 1676, by Royal Decree of Charles II, the Royal University of San Carlos became the third royal university founded in Hispanic America; however, its activities were interrupted after the process of independence of Central America in 1821. On that occasion, each province of the former Captaincy General of Guatemala promoted the creation of a local university. The university remained as an institution, but it was closed in 1829 and in 1834 it was converted into the "Academy of Sciences"; and in 1840 once again into the "Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo"; and even, for a short period between 1918 and 1920, it was called "Estrada Cabrera University," in honor of the then President of the Republic, licenciado Manuel Estrada Cabrera. After the Guatemalan revolution of October 1944, USAC managed to obtain full autonomy, but beginning in 1954, with the resurgence of Catholic education and the founding of private universities, a process of attrition against the institution began, which included the constant failure to pay the budgetary percentage that corresponds to the University (and which is stipulated in the Constitution of the Republic), and the persecution of student and faculty leaders throughout the entire duration of the Guatemalan Civil War (1960–1996).
The main campus is located in the Ciudad Universitaria, in Zone 12 of Guatemala City, and the university has university centers in all the departments of Guatemala, in addition to a metropolitan university center where the Faculty of Medicine and the School of Psychology operate.
History
First period: Royal and Pontifical University of Guatemala
The process of colonization involved the creation of a society, for which institutions of civil and ecclesiastical government were established. Over time, the residents of the city demanded a place in the Crown's bureaucracy for their descendants, as a reward for the feats of conquest carried out by their ancestors. However, there were no educational centers where young people could obtain the knowledge necessary to serve as ministers.[7]
It was not until the second half of the 16th century that the first initiatives appeared to establish studies beyond religious indoctrination and the literacy that accompanied it. The first Bishop of Guatemala, Francisco Marroquín, requested royal approval to found a chair of grammar, in which Latin would be taught, as it was the language used by the learned culture of the time. This fact has been the argument most often used to perpetuate the founding myth that directly links the first Bishop of Guatemala with the antecedents of the University of San Carlos.[lower-alpha 2]
Toward the end of his life, in 1562, Marroquín decided to leave in his will a fund to found a college, that of Saint Thomas Aquinas, where chairs of grammar, arts or philosophy and theology would be taught. The beneficiaries of this pious work would be the sons of poor Spaniards, since they could not move to cities where there were royal universities, such as Mexico. The Bishop's bequest has also been interpreted as the origin of the university. However, the prelate was very clear about the difference between a college—a residence for students, with or without chairs—and a university or Estudio General, where degrees were conferred. In this regard, the historian John Tate Lanning states: "This will is so well known that some who have not even seen it have read in it many things that are not there. Nowhere does Marroquín mention a university, much less declare an intention to establish one..."[9] What is documented is that Mayor Pedro Crespo Suárez, upon his death, donated twenty thousand pesos for the establishment of chairs at the university "that is being arranged".[10]
According to the historian Domingo Juarros, Marroquín left revenues to found a college that would receive twelve collegians and that would have chairs of Philosophy and Theology, naming as those in charge the Dean of the Cathedral Church and the Prior of the Convent of Santo Domingo.[11] The Dominicans ceded an area in the atrium of their church so that some classrooms could be built, and the Real Audiencia proposed that the friars teach courses in them without charge for some years, but the clergymen opposed this and did not even allow the Franciscans to do so.[11]
In 1598, the third Bishop of Guatemala, Fray Gómez Fernández de Córdoba y Santillán, O.S.H., following the ecclesiastical guidelines of the Council of Trent and supported by the royal decrees issued after that council, authorized the founding of the Tridentine College and Seminary of Our Lady of the Assumption, which was the first institution of higher education in the Kingdom of Guatemala.[12] For their part, the Jesuits, who already had the College of San Borja and wanted the Tridentine College for themselves, opposed the founding of the new institution, since they did not like any of the other regular orders—Mercedarians, Franciscans and Dominicans—or the secular cathedral chapter to take the initiative in religious and educational matters.
Meanwhile, the President of the Audiencia authorized the start of lectures at the College of Santo Tomás in 1620,[11] while authorization was awaited for the construction of a college for the students, since they only had the classrooms on a plot belonging to the Dominican convent where, in theory, the chairs of arts, theology and canons were to be read.[13] The first professors were:
- Felipe Ruiz del Corral, dean of the Cathedral,
- Ambrosio Díaz del Castillo, provincial of Santo Domingo
- Fray García de Loayza
- Dr. Pereira[11]
King Philip IV authorized the College of Santo Tomás to approve courses and confer degrees at the institution, which Bishop Juan Zapata took advantage of to confer doctoral degrees on the dean Felipe Ruiz del Coral and on the friars Francisco Cevallos and Alonso Guirao, O.P., and bachelor's degrees on the brothers Tomás and Ambrosio Díaz del Castillo.[14]
After several decades, allegations and petitions, King Charles II issued a royal decree, dated January 31, 1676, which granted license to the capital of the Kingdom (then located in Antigua Guatemala) to found a royal university or Estudio General, as this type of institution was also called. This would be the third royal and public university of Hispanic America, and the second in New Spain.[lower-alpha 3] After a conflictive organizational process and five years after the royal decree was issued, the University of San Carlos began lessons in five of its nine chairs on January 7, 1681, with more than sixty students enrolled and with Doctor José de Baños y Soto Mayor, archdeacon of the Cathedral, Preacher to the King of Spain and Doctor of the University of Osuna, as rector.[10][lower-alpha 4] The university was inaugurated under the patronage of Saint Charles Borromeo, with its statutes issued by Don Francisco Saraza y Arce, a copy of those of Mexico which, in turn, were an adaptation of those of the University of Salamanca in Spain.
Some of the elected professors did not take possession of their chairs, owing to their occupations as procurators and their prompt departure from the kingdom; others because they considered that their new status, as "interim" rather than "proprietary" holders of the chair, was not worthy of their prestige; and one more, the professor of medicine, never arrived in Guatemala because he was at the Royal University of Mexico lecturing in another chair.[lower-alpha 5]
The university constitution required academic freedom, and likewise required that opposing philosophical doctrines be read in order to encourage dialectic and the discussion of ideas.
The first chairs of the University of San Carlos were:
- Canons
- Laws
- Medicine
- Scholastic Theology
- Moral Theology
- Two language courses
The Royal University of San Carlos Borromeo received papal approval by a bull of June 18, 1687, ten years after its founding and six years after classes began.
Admission to the University was not simple: excluded from it were Blacks, chinos, morenos, mulattoes and those who had been penanced by the Holy Office or who had themselves incurred that misfortune.[15] The natives did have the right to enroll and to obtain degrees, and it is recorded that among them there were some who displayed their talent in the subjects they studied.[15]
First graduates and the teaching of sciences
In 1660 the printer José de Pineda Ibarra arrived in Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala. Among his many works, his press produced university graduation cards, which recorded the topics on which the graduates' examination would focus, the date and time at which they would take the test, and the names of the university authorities and of the persons to whom the academic act was dedicated.[17]
On July 11, 1717, thirty years after its papal approval, the first candidate for Doctor of Medicine, Vicente Ferrer González, presented himself. The next doctor, Pedro Palacios y Cóbar, presented himself for examination sixteen years later; forty-seven years after him, the distinguished doctor José Felipe Flores presented himself for examination.[18]
In 1763, the provincial of the Franciscan Order received a letter from his superiors ordering him to implement new methods in the regular studies;[16] that letter recommended the text Physica experimental by the friar Fortunato Brixia, and the provincial chose the Franciscan friar José Antonio de Liendo y Goicoechea to reform education at the University and to introduce to it the science—chemistry, physics, anatomy and mathematics—and the technology of his time.[16]
The Bourbon Reforms
The beginning of the decline of the power of the Catholic Church in Guatemala occurred with the publication of the Bourbon Reforms of the Spanish Crown in 1765, which sought to recover the Crown's power over the colonies and increase tax collection.[19]. With these reforms, the estancos were created to control the production of intoxicating beverages, tobacco, gunpowder, playing cards and cockfighting pits. The royal treasury auctioned each estanco annually and a private individual bought it, thus becoming the owner of the monopoly on a certain product. That same year, four sub-delegations of the Real Hacienda were created in San Salvador, Ciudad Real, Comayagua and León.[20]
In addition to this administrative redistribution, the Spanish Crown established a policy aimed at reducing the power of the Catholic Church,[20] a power that until then had been practically absolute over the Spanish subjects. The policy of reducing the power of the Church was based on the Enlightenment and had six main points:
- Decline of the Jesuit cultural legacy
- A tendency toward a lay and secularized culture, directly affecting the regular orders that ran the University.
- A decidedly rationalist attitude, of Cartesian heritage
- The valuing of natural science over religious dogma
- A critique of the role of the Church within society and of its derivative bodies, above all the confraternities and brotherhoods.[lower-alpha 6]
- The favoring of regalism.
Move from Antigua Guatemala to Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción
"To this horrisonous sound of [the rumblings] of the earth, the anguished citizens responded, as if forming a chorus with it, with sorrowful groans and sad voices; and although the whole and the disordered multitude [...] was a discordant echo that resounded unpleasantly to human ears, they doubtless formed the sweetest consonance and most agreeable music to divine ones; for all were cries and deprecations to Heaven to temper the rigors of its justified anger. Some repeated in devout song the Trisagion: Holy God, Holy Mighty, etc.: a means that, since the famous tremors that afflicted Constantinople in the 5th century, [...] God proved effective for suspending the executions of His wrath in the upheavals of the earth. [...] Others, imploring the intercession of the Queen of Grace and of the Saints, sought the remedy through the endeavors of her mercy. All, in order to make peace with God, strove insistently to expiate their sins in the Holy Sacrament of Penance: many priests applied themselves to this ministry; [...] but they were not enough, and he who could not obtain sacramental confession [...] was not ashamed to shout out his sins. And, passing from the sacrament to the virtue of penance, some struck their breasts vigorously, others their faces, and many, arranged in public procession, punished their bodies with bloody disciplines."
—Fray Felipe Cadena
Dr. of the Faculty of Theology of the Royal University of San Carlos
Synodal Examiner of the Archdiocese of Guatemala
Secretary of the Province of Preachers
1774[22]
After the earthquakes of 1751, many buildings were renovated and numerous new structures were built in the city of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala, so that by 1773 the city gave the impression of being completely new. Most of the private houses in the city were spacious and sumptuous, to the point that both the exterior doors and those of the rooms were of carved wood, and the windows were of fine glass and had carved wooden frames. It was common to find in the residences paintings by local artists with frames covered in gold, mother-of-pearl or tortoiseshell, fine mirrors, silver lamps and delicate carpets.[23] And the Catholic churches were magnificent: there were 26 churches in the city, and 15 hermitages and oratories; the cathedral was the most sumptuous structure: it had three spacious naves, with two orders of chapels on the sides, with enormous entrance doors that were carved and gilded.[24] The main public buildings of the city were not far behind in luxury and ostentation: the Palace of the Captains General, the Archbishop's Palace, the Casa de Cabildo and the Mint. There were also the Royal University of San Carlos, two seminaries for boys, a seminary for girls, the Royal Customs House, eight monasteries of monks and five convents of nuns, three beaterios, two hospitals, two jails for men and one for women.[25]
The Royal and Pontifical University of San Carlos, recognized throughout the Kingdom of Guatemala for the notable academic level of its students, was made up of eight preceptors who held the chairs in the various faculties and three rectors: two Franciscans and one Dominican.[26]
The Santa Marta earthquakes of 1773 destroyed the capital of the Kingdom of Guatemala, and Captain General Martín de Mayorga decided to move the capital to a new site. The university authorities opposed the move to a new city, because all of the institution's assets were in the old capital of the kingdom, and a move would mean a considerable economic loss; the building of the University and the Tridentine College, built by Dr. Juan González Batres, suffered little damage, which could be repaired. The only danger to the structure was the south wall of the Cathedral, just across the street, which had been left leaning toward the University.[27]
"Not far from my house lived the horse renter, a fellow well known to collegians and students, who were obliged to resort to his establishment at each of the three or four strikes there were in the course of the year."[28]
Nevertheless, the Captain General ordered the move to the capital, and in 1776 the university began teaching in Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción. The altarpieces, furniture and instruments of the cathedral of Antigua Guatemala were removed and stored in the building of the University of San Carlos, located across from the cathedral, in 1783.[29] The gigantic walls of the building remained standing, but without a roof; the interior was used as a cemetery, and the tombs lay beneath trees that rose above the walls.[30]
At the end of the 18th century and in the first years of the 19th century, in addition to three prescribed academic acts, there were the following requirements to aspire to the doctoral cap:
- to petition the King to legitimize the title in writing[31]
- to allow the ecclesiastical cloister of the university to verify that the doctoral candidate had no admixture whatsoever of Hebrew or Arab blood; to this end, a commission of doctors inspected the candidate's library to verify that there was no book containing heretical doctrines, or doctrines suspected of being so.[31]
- to endure the "vejamen", which consisted of allowing oneself to be insulted, offended and abused in order to demonstrate one's humility.[31]
Once the above requirements were fulfilled, the date was set for the "Opening of Points", in which a child opened at random a page of the Institutes of Emperor Justinian I, on which the candidate was to discourse; he was shut up in the "general of the University", which was the institution's assembly hall, and there, held incommunicado, he wrote his dissertation in Latin.[32] The next act was "La Fúnebre", which took place in the chapter house of the Cathedral Church, into which one entered after being searched for possible weapons; when the act concluded satisfactorily, generally around midnight, firecrackers were set off to celebrate it.[33] Finally, the act of "la Borla" was held, the solemn act in which the new doctor received his cap in the central nave of the Cathedral, sponsored by a prominent gentleman of colonial society and after delivering an oration in Latin before whatever public wished to attend.[33]
In 1806, the presbyter Rafael José Luna, parish priest of San José, had the idea of using the ruins of the old cathedral as a parish church; in 1814 the ecclesiastical Chapter resolved to accept the petition, and in 1819 some remodeling work on the building began, tearing down ruined parts such as the bell towers. The work stopped for a time, until it resumed in 1832. When the work was finished, the parish of San José moved from the old building of the University of San Carlos to the old cathedral, where it has been ever since.[34]
Since it had no assets in the new city, the University required public donations to build a new building and obtain chairs;[35] the rector José Simeón Cañas informed Captain General Antonio Mollinedo y Saravia of the institution's difficult situation in 1803.[36] The university building was half-finished when independence came in September 1821.[30]
"I was able to present myself requesting to be admitted to the first literary act for the degree of doctor, which they called the repetition.
I chose Dr. Dávalos to be my sponsor. The judge gladly agreed, and we went out together in his coach to distribute the invitations throughout the city. The University building was in full dress. The assembly hall was adorned with crimson damask drapery; the corridors were strewn with pine needles, and at the main door there was a marimba, which two Indians played without interruption for as long as the celebration lasted. In the presence of the numerous cloister and the brilliant gathering of invited private persons, I delivered my oration with ease and facility, and then I answered the arguments put to me by three doctors. My answers seemed completely satisfactory, and I was approved by unanimous vote. The following day they placed the cap on me, and I was incorporated into the cloister as a licentiate in civil law of the University.
I devoted myself diligently to preparing for the examination they call the fúnebre, which, as was customary, was to take place in the session hall of the Metropolitan Chapter. I came through that literary contest most happily; it was no longer a merely formal act like the repetition. Competent persons questioned me for six hours and put to me serious questions of civil jurisprudence. At twelve midnight, a peal of bells in the Cathedral and the bursting of many double rockets announced my literary triumph to my friends and to the public. It was the custom. Thus was science exalted, given prestige in the eyes of the people, and men of letters placed in an eminent position on the social ladder. To that result also contributed the ceremonies and the pomp with which the tassel was conferred on the laureates.
In a raised amphitheater, decorated with crimson damask drapery, were the benches intended for the chancellor, the doctors and the bachelors who formed the cloister. At the back rose the canopy with the arms of the University, and an armchair that was to be occupied by the President of the Audiencia and Captain General of the Kingdom. A large orchestra located in the right side nave was to play at the beginning of the ceremony. Preceded by the mace-bearers, who opened a path through the crowd filling the church, we left the chapter house, more than forty individuals in number, doctors and university licentiates. Two beadles carried on silver trays the gratuities and silk handkerchiefs intended for the members of the institute.
At the end of the act, which I had dedicated in Latin to Jesus Christ, I saw myself attired in that red silk mozzetta, showily embroidered in gold; my head covered with the black velvet bonnet, on which the tassel shone, and on my hand gleamed the ruby that adorned the doctoral ring."
—Taken from: Milla y Vidaurre, José (1984). Memorias de un Abogado, Colección Textos Modernos (in español). Guatemala: Editorial Escolar Piedra Santa.[38][39]
Second period: Academy of Sciences
He founded the secular Academy of Sciences, which came to replace the Pontifical University after independence.
His remains rest in the building of the Museum of the University of San Carlos.[40]
After the Independence of Central America in 1821, the University came to be called simply the "Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo" and was left in a precarious situation, since its new building was under construction and the political environment of the Central American region was very unstable. In 1825, Dr. Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol was elected rector, and he maintained religious education at the University. However, after the defeat of the conservatives and the expulsion of the regular orders in 1829, the University was left in abeyance. In 1834, when Doctor Mariano Gálvez was Head of State of Guatemala, the Academy of Sciences was created in the State, successor to the University in Guatemala, eliminating religious education completely and introducing the teaching of Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry and Physics; titles of Surveyor also began to be granted. The Academy of Sciences operated until 1840, the year in which, with the triumph of the conservatives and under the effective command of General Rafael Carrera, it was transformed once again into a theological University and was called the "Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo";[8] Dr. Aycinena was again appointed rector of the institution.
Third period: Pontifical University
The power of the Catholic Church and of the Aycinena clan—to which the rector and a good number of officials of the Carrera government belonged—in the conservative regime was ratified with the Concordat of 1854, by means of which Guatemala granted the education of the Guatemalan people to the regular orders of the Catholic Church, undertook to respect ecclesiastical properties and monasteries, authorized the compulsory tithe and allowed the bishops to censor what was published in the country; in exchange, Guatemala received graces for the members of the army, allowed those who had acquired the properties that the liberals had expropriated from the Church in 1829 to keep them, collected taxes on what was generated by the Church's properties, and had the right to try clergymen who committed crimes under Guatemalan law.[41] This concordat was planned by Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol, then minister of government and rector of the university, ratified in the first instance by the minister of the interior, justice and ecclesiastical affairs, Pedro de Aycinena, and then by the President of the Republic, Captain General Rafael Carrera, who in 1854 was elected President for life of Guatemala.
The doctors of the Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo wore ankle-length gowns on ceremonial days. They wore the cap and tassel, preceded by the mace-bearers and followed by beadles.[42] At the Pontifical University, the theological and scholastic sciences were taught, as well as Roman law and the medical sciences. Philosophy and Latin were studied there as well, and at one time the K'ach'ikel language.[42]
In the logic class, students defended the pro and the con, and they learned Latin without any trace of positivism. The study of the history of Guatemala was minimal, and there was only very superficial knowledge of geography, grammar and mathematics.[42]
It was a kind of intellectual boxing match, a battle between the defender and the respondents, in which syllogisms were hurled with impunity and we tried to destroy the fallacies or undo the conclusions of our opponent.
The act lasted an hour, after which the defender went to kneel before the Rector and take the oath in Latin, thus being incorporated into the order of bachelors.[42]
—Ramón A. Salazar, Recuerdos de mi Juventud, 1896.
Once holding the title of Bachelor in philosophy, "our major studies were undertaken, which were only three: cleric, lawyer or physician".[43]
Given the Concordat of 1852 with the Holy See, the clerical career was the most advantageous. With a little application, luck and influence, secular priests could obtain a good parish, which represented for them a substantial income, a good house, servants, gifts, absolute dominion over the parishioners, and active participation in the government of the locality.[44] The rest of the students were divided between Law and Medicine.[45]
There was no engineering degree as such, but there were surveyors, who had to resort to private teachers, since the profession was lucrative.[46] The chairs at the University of San Carlos were obtained by competitive examination, a system that later had to be dispensed with because it was convenient to keep from them certain professors reluctant toward modern ideas.[46]
Dogmatic theology and canon law were at their peak. Saint Thomas Aquinas was the philosopher of reference and the Summa the most used compendium. Based on this doctrine, the university's theologians were intolerant, and in the dominant circles there prevailed the ideas that made Guatemala the most theological country and the most reactionary to the changes of positivism in America.[47]
Physics and chemistry were taught theoretically, without apparatus, explanatory charts or experiments. At that time there were neither laboratories nor cabinets, and there was no anatomical amphitheater. Students lacked textbooks, and the Library was inaccessible to students.[47] Avendaño's physics text—a book of about a hundred pages—served as the physics textbook, while in chemistry study went only as far as the metalloids.
At the Pontifical University, neither history, nor the law of nations, nor political economy, nor constitutional law, nor literature was studied; but Roman law, the history of civil law and canon law were.[47]
Fourth period: The University during the Liberal Reform
After the Revolution of 1871, the defeat of the conservatives caused higher technical education to take a different course: the regular orders were again expelled, their assets were confiscated, and education took on a secular character that lasted until 1944. The Escuela Politécnica was founded in 1873 to train military engineers, topographers and telegraph engineers, as well as military officers. In July 1875, Barrios abolished the Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo and in its place created the National University of Guatemala, with the Faculties of Jurisprudence and Political and Social Sciences, and of Medicine and Pharmacy; the organic and regulatory law of public instruction decreed that, in the latter, the study of physiology was to be carried out in a philosophical manner, with all the modern theories about the science and, insofar as possible, experimentally.[48] In 1877 the government founded the University of the West, which had the Faculty School of Law and Notary of the West,[49] and in 1879 it founded the National Library of Guatemala.[50][51] And in 1879 the faculties of Engineering, Philosophy and Literature were created.[lower-alpha 7]
During the presidency of General Manuel Lisandro Barillas Bercián (1885-1892), the Faculty School of Medicine of the West was founded, and scholarships to study abroad were granted to the best students of the Faculty of Medicine of both the National University and the University of the West.[52][53]
On March 21, 1893, during the government of General José María Reyna Barrios, legislative decree 193 provided that the boards of directors of the faculties of the National University would be appointments of the executive, as would the professors of the faculty schools. The faculties would not proceed to elect their boards of directors and could not put chairs up for competitive examination.[54]
In 1897, due to the economic crisis resulting from the beautification of the infrastructure and the failure of the Central American Exposition, Reyna Barrios began to economize on education, closing the schools and the National University.[55] At the end of that year, Salvador Mendieta returned to Guatemala to begin his university studies, but due to Guatemala's political instability following the revolutions of the East and the West after the extension of President Reyna Barrios's term, and to the closing of the University, he decided to move to Mexico at the beginning of 1898.[56] But after the death of Reyna Barrios on February 8, the government decreed the opening of the public teaching establishments, arguing that instruction was the basis of liberal institutions; Mendieta then entered the Faculty of Law and Notary of the National University.[56]
The University during the government of Manuel Estrada Cabrera
—Salvador Mendieta
On the student association "El Derecho"
1899
The Nicaraguan Salvador Mendieta, who had already been expelled from the Instituto Nacional Central para Varones by the recently deceased General José María Reyna Barrios for having founded an association that sought to start a movement against the director of the institute,[56] founded on June 18, 1899, together with other companions, the student society "El Derecho", in which a group of law, engineering and medical students participated and which had unionist tendencies.[57] The society made itself publicly known on September 15, 1899, when some members were invited by the Mayor of Guatemala City to take part in the events celebrating the independence of Central America, which were held at the Faculty of Law on 9th Avenue.
The society's objectives were a series of aspirations for social change:
- to gather the university students of the isthmus around the ideal of Central American union
- to strengthen social ties and promote academic exchange
- to promote the founding of student societies similar to the one established in Guatemala
- to organize the students to wage the struggle of those who think against those who oppress.[58]
The association "El Derecho", because of its serious denunciations of abuse of power and its protests against the President, licenciado Manuel Estrada Cabrera, was closed after barely a year of existence; Estrada Cabrera imprisoned and then expelled Mendieta for promoting these activities that threatened his regime.[59]
In April 1899, the Legislative Assembly sent to the President, licenciado Manuel Estrada Cabrera (who obtained his law degree from the School of Law and Notary of the West in 1881), a decree declaring the autonomy of the University to elect its authorities; Estrada Cabrera replied to the Assembly that said decree was not appropriate because "there was no room for the autonomy of the Faculties since the State provided for their support and management in every sense [...] for which reason they were official dependencies of the government [...]"[54] Thus, the Faculties of the University depended completely on the Executive, and the Secretary of Public Instruction included the faculty schools of higher education in his annual report to the National Legislative Assembly, and also recommended to the President of the Republic the list of their teachers. The final designation of the professors was the prerogative of the President. By means of the decree issued on June 16, 1900, Estrada Cabrera militarized all educational centers. University students received military instruction during the first six months of the first year of their degree.[60]
By 1907, the Faculty Schools were:
- School of Law and Notary (70 students)
- School of Medicine and Pharmacy (150 students)
- Dental Institute (5 students)
- School of Midwives (10 students)
- School of Engineering (15 students)[62]
Note that in 1907, the Faculty School of Engineering belonged to the National University. This School, for budgetary reasons, alternated between the Escuela Politécnica and the University; this situation ended in 1908, after the President, licenciado Manuel Estrada Cabrera, closed the Escuela Politécnica following a failed attempt on his life by some cadets.[63]
In 1918 the "University of Guatemala" was created, which came to be called the "Estrada Cabrera University", by legislative decree of May 2, 1918.[64] The procedures for creating the University were carried out by Francisco Gálvez Portocarrero, a personal friend of the President, in whom, after a trip to Peru, Argentina and Chile on the occasion of a student congress, the idea germinated of creating a University in Guatemala like the South American ones. Upon his return to the country, Gálvez, who was also a deputy of the National Assembly of Guatemala, brought with him a library on the university subject and influenced the ruler and the members of the Assembly toward the creation of the "University of Guatemala".[65]
Government of Carlos Herrera (1920-1921)
The "Estrada Cabrera" University of Guatemala was dissolved after the overthrow of the President in April 1920; but one of the first measures of the government of Carlos Herrera y Luna (Estrada Cabrera's substitute designated by the National Legislative Assembly) was to designate authorities and professors for the Faculties of higher studies. Here are examples of the decrees:
| Decrees | |
|---|---|
| Organization of authorities | Appointment of professors |
Executive Branch
Ministry of Public Instruction —Taken from: El Guatemalteco, Official Newspaper of the Republic of Guatemala - Central America, April 25, 1920[67] |
Executive Branch
Ministry of Public Instruction —Taken from: "Decretos del Organismo Ejecutivo". El Guatemalteco, Diario Oficial de la República de Guatemala - América Central (in español). May 30, 1920.[68] |
Accordingly, the Faculties constituted by similar decrees from 1920 onward were:
- Faculty of Natural Sciences and Pharmacy
- Faculty of Law, Notary and Political and Social Sciences
- Faculty of Medical Sciences
- Faculty of Engineering.
Recognition of the work of the University during the fall of Cabrera:
The government of Carlos Herrera y Luna, in recognition of the collaboration that the university students lent to the Unionist Movement, returned to the Higher Faculties the autonomy to elect authorities in accordance with the following decree (though not absolute autonomy):
| Decrees | |
|---|---|
| Autonomy to elect authorities | Headquarters for the Students' Association |
Decree No. 1,031 The Legislative Assembly of the Republic of Guatemala DECREES: Article 1.- Legislative Decree No. 193, issued on March 21, 1893, is repealed, and consequently the provisions of the Law of Public Instruction modified by the aforementioned Decree remain in force. —Taken from: "Decretos del Organismo Legislativo". El Guatemalteco, Diario Oficial de la República de Guatemala - América Central (in español). May 10, 1920.[69] |
In recognition of the contributions of the university students to the overthrow of Estrada Cabrera, the government granted a space so that the University Students could hold meetings of all kinds: Executive Branch —Taken from: "Decretos del Organismo Ejecutivo". El Guatemalteco, Diario Oficial de la República de Guatemala - América Central (in español). April 25, 1920.[67] |
It is not surprising that the Association of University Students[lower-alpha 8] dates from this period, as does the resurgence of the "El Derecho" Students' Association, which had been closed by Estrada Cabrera in 1899.[70]
The 1920s
After the coup d'état of 1921, General José María Orellana began a policy entirely favorable to the interests of the American companies that had obtained generous concessions from the government of Manuel Estrada Cabrera; Herrera had refused to ratify those concessions, but he was overthrown.
Under the key principles of eradicating illiteracy, raising the educational level and strengthening civic instruction, which were put forward during the government of Carlos Herrera y Luna, the Popular University was created in 1922, from which the educational project was strengthened and extended.[lower-alpha 9]
The initial idea came from the Colombian poet Porfirio Barba Jacob. And it was a group of intellectuals, members of the so-called Generation of 1920—Epaminondas Quintana, Carlos Federico Mora, David Vela, Miguel Ángel Asturias and Carlos Fletes Sáenz—who founded it on August 20, 1922.[71] The aim was to bring to the popular sectors a type of instruction that until then had been the exclusive property of the country's elites, and the name "University" did not refer to a house of higher education: the objective was to take a name that alluded to an institution of elitist character, which monopolized the right to knowledge, and bring it down to a level to which all people could have access.
The founding objectives of the Popular University in Guatemala centered on the three core aspects of the educational problem:
- Teaching reading and writing.
- Teaching the circle of general knowledge to the social classes that, through circumstances of fortune, have not been able to acquire it.
- Spreading among the people the most important notions of hygiene and of civic and moral instruction, in order to achieve an improvement in the physical and spiritual conditions of the great mass.[lower-alpha 10][72]
After the massacres of workers of the United Fruit Company and of its subsidiary, the International Railways of Central America, in 1924, there were considerable protests by university students, who accused the Orellana government of selling out the country. In response to the protests, Orellana closed the University, although this cost the government the support of the network of intellectuals.
In 1926, General Orellana died under suspicious circumstances in Antigua Guatemala and was succeeded by General Lázaro Chacón, who took a progressive approach. With Chacón at the head of the Government, the University was reopened on September 23, 1929,[73] which was considered one of the most praised immediate actions of his government.[74]
When General Jorge Ubico Castañeda took office as President, he once again withdrew the faculties' autonomy; ironically, during the end of the government of General Lázaro Chacón and the interim governments that succeeded him after he suffered a stroke (between December 1930 and February 1931),[75] the university had been on the verge of obtaining absolute autonomy.[76] In addition, in 1932 Ubico closed the Popular University and prohibited the holding of Huelga de Dolores activities.
Fifth period: The University after the October Revolution
It was not until the fall of the government of Ubico Castañeda's successor, General Federico Ponce Vaides, on October 20, 1944, that definitive university autonomy was granted to the National University; on November 11, 1944, Decree No. 12 was issued granting Autonomy to the entity, and it came to be called the "University of San Carlos of Guatemala". The University was conceived as the governing body of higher education and, at the same time, was entrusted with functions of cooperation in the study and solution of national problems.[77]
In that year the following faculties were created:
- Faculty of Humanities: founded by the then President of Guatemala, Dr. Juan José Arévalo, on September 17, 1945. Among its founders, as honorary founding professor, was Dr. Eduardo García Máynez, who was professor emeritus of the UNAM. The humanistic studies included were: Philosophy, History, Literature, Psychology and Pedagogy.[78]
- Faculty of Agronomy
- Faculty of Architecture
- Faculty of Economic Sciences[8]
Likewise, the university was opened to women and to all members of Guatemalan society, and no longer only to the elites.[79]
After the counterrevolution of 1954
Fulfilling its constitutional mandate, the University of San Carlos took an active part in the life of the country, presenting concrete proposals on economic, political and social issues. With the advent of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, countries that divided world hegemony between them after their victory in World War II, the counterrevolution of 1954 by the National Liberation Movement, the Cuban Revolution in 1959, and with the influx of students from all social strata, Marxist thought became radicalized at the University. On the other hand, the then Archbishop of Guatemala, Mariano Rossell y Arellano, found it urgent to recover the position of the Catholic Church in Guatemala, lost since the liberal government of Justo Rufino Barrios in 1872, and for that reason he allied himself with the interests of the United Fruit Company through the National Liberation Movement to overthrow the revolutionary governments, which he labeled atheist and communist. On April 4, 1954, Rossell Arellano issued a pastoral letter in which he criticized the advances of communism in the country and called on Guatemalans to rise up and fight against the common enemy of God and the fatherland. This pastoral letter was distributed throughout the country; and although he published that the Catholic Church was not seeking privileges in its struggle against the Arbenz government, Rossel y Arellano succeeded, after the overthrow of the latter in June 1954, in having the government of Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas incorporate the following into the Constitution of 1956, for the first time since 1872:[80]
- the legal capacity of the Catholic Church to own property
- that religious education be declared of public interest
- that the State contribute to the support of religious education
- that the academic independence of private universities with respect to the University of San Carlos of Guatemala be declared.[80]
In this way, the Catholic Church recovered part of the power it had lost in 1871, after the Liberal Reform expropriated its lands, assets and privileges in a direct attack against it, since it was the principal member of the Conservative Party of Guatemala of that time.
The Nottebohm case and the dean of the Faculty of Law
Between 1951 and 1955, the dean of the Faculty of Law, licenciado Adolfo Molina Orantes, served as legal adviser to the delegation of Guatemala before the International Court of Justice in The Hague against the principality of Liechtenstein and its citizen Friedrich Nottebohm, in what became known as the Nottebohm case.[81] In 1943, because Guatemala had declared war on Germany, Friedrich Nottebohm was arrested on account of being German and was deported to the United States, where he was interned as a "citizen of an enemy country" according to Guatemala's own records. Upon being released in the U.S. in 1946, Friedrich Nottebohm tried to return to Guatemala and was denied entry. In 1949 his assets located in Guatemalan territory were confiscated, and in 1951 Liechtenstein initiated proceedings before the International Court of Justice in The Hague against Guatemala, claiming reparations and compensation on behalf of its citizen Friedrich Nottebohm. In this case, a first relevant issue was raised regarding the admissibility of the claim; the question was whether Liechtenstein (the State where Nottebohm had been naturalized in October 1939) could protect him with respect to Guatemala, the country that had allegedly caused him harm through the confiscation of his patrimony.[82] The Court decided in its judgment of April 6, 1955, that the claim was inadmissible, and that therefore Guatemala was not obliged to recognize the Liechtenstein nationality acquired by Nottebohm for the purposes of diplomatic protection. The Court concluded that the naturalization of October 1939 had been requested by Nottebohm for the sole purpose of obtaining legal recognition by Liechtenstein in his favor, in order to substitute his status as a national of a belligerent State (Germany) for the status of a neutral State (Liechtenstein), and therefore no intention could be discerned in Nottebohm to become bound to the traditions, interests, way of life or to the exercise of rights and obligations with respect to Liechtenstein. For this reason, the Court decided that Guatemala retained the right to reject the validity of the naturalization of October 1939 and that the Principality of Liechtenstein lacked the right to claim reparations on behalf of Nottebohm.[83]
This decision proved relevant in international law regarding the criteria governing the recognition of a person's effective nationality. For his part, licenciado Adolfo Molina Orantes was recognized as an expert in legal matters at the international level and appointed permanent consultant to the international court, his prestige as a jurist transcending national boundaries.
Formation of private universities
As a result of the changes in national politics after the counterrevolution of 1954, the Guatemalan elites began to form their own university centers,[lower-alpha 11] in which Catholic or capitalist and liberal thought was handled in order to counteract the social-communist thought of San Carlos. In 1965 the Income Tax Law was issued, which exempted private universities from all kinds of taxes, contributions and levies, and in 1966 the Law of Private Universities was approved.[84]
Promotion of Veterinary Medicine
The Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science was created on September 27, 1957,[85] then attached to the Faculty of Medical Sciences, in the so-called University Paraninfo in Zone 1. In 1958 and 1959 it carried out its functions in private houses in the city rented by the university,[85] first on Quinta Calle and Segunda Avenida in Zone 9, and then on Vía 4 and Séptima Avenida in Zone 4, also using the library of the USAC Botanical Garden, on Calle Mariscal Cruz and Avenida de la Reforma in Zone 4. By 1960 the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine was permanently established in the University City, provisionally installed in two prefabricated buildings.[85]
On January 11, 1969, the School of Animal Science was created, independent of the School of Veterinary Medicine,[85] and on September 27, 1974, it moved to the new modular buildings inaugurated in the southwestern part of the University City, together with the Veterinary Medical Hospital.
Research on Guatemalan history
In 1957 the renowned Marxist historian Severo Martínez Peláez returned to Guatemala and devoted himself to teaching at the University of San Carlos. The dean of the Faculty of Economic Sciences, licenciado Rafael Piedrasanta Arandi, and the rector magnificus of the university, Doctor Edmundo Vásquez Martínez, gave their consent for the university to grant Martínez Peláez a research scholarship at the General Archive of the Indies in Seville, Spain, between 1967 and 1969. From this research came his principal work, La patria del criollo, in 1970, as well as the Economic History of Central America program of the Faculty of Economic Sciences and the total reform of the university's School of History in 1978.[86]
In 1979, because of threats from the government of General Fernando Romeo Lucas García, Martínez Peláez had to go into exile again with his family and continued his research and teaching work at the Meritorious Autonomous University of Puebla, where he took part in seminars and new courses in the history program of that Mexican university's College of History and had important meetings with historians and Guatemalan exiles in Mexico.[87]
Repression and decline
During the government of General and Engineer Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes, direct repression against the members of the University began, which became evident with the death of three students in front of the Faculty of Law in Zone 1 in 1962.
EXMIBAL case
During the government of Julio César Méndez Montenegro, the possibility of ceding the nickel mines in Izabal was discussed, but this did not prosper. As soon as General Carlos Arana Osorio began his term on July 1, 1970, he reopened the EXMIBAL case and began working to grant it the concession; but numerous social sectors opposed it, arguing that it would prove very onerous for the country. One of the main opponents was the Commission that the University of San Carlos created to analyze the matter; among the members of the commission were licenciado Oscar Adolfo Mijangos López, then a deputy in Congress, the respected Guatemalan intellectual and Alfonso Bauer Paiz, a renowned intellectual and former member of the governments of Juan José Arévalo Bermejo and Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán, and Julio Camey Herrera.[77] Camey Herrera and Bauer Paiz were shot at in November 1970: Camey died as a result of his wounds, while Bauer Paz, wounded, had to go into exile.[88]
The members of the commission flatly opposed the terms of the concession that the Government proposed to EXMIBAL; after the attack on Bauer Paiz and Camey, on February 13, 1971, Mijangos López was murdered by unknown persons as he was leaving his office on 4th Avenue in Zone 1 of Guatemala City.[77][lower-alpha 12]
On May 8, 1971, the Arana Osorio government finally granted the concession to EXMIBAL;[77] it covered three hundred and eighty square kilometers in the area of El Estor, with an initial investment of US$228 million. The mine, built in the mountains of the Q'eqchi indigenous people, included a residential complex of seven hundred houses, numerous offices, a hospital, a small shopping center, a school, a golf course and a large industrial processing area.[88]
Military governments of Laugerud and Lucas García
During the military governments of the 1970s, the tension between the government and the university persisted, reaching its peak in 1978 during the massive protests held against the increase in urban transport fares in Guatemala City. The Association of University Students played a leading role in the protests, but this brought the persecution of its leaders and the murder of the association's secretary general, Oliverio Castañeda de León, on October 20 of that year.
Just fifteen days after the murder of Castañeda de León, his successor, Antonio Ciani García, was disappeared, and over the following 18 months almost all student leaders and university professors with political ties (even with the legal parties) received threats. Those who paid no heed and continued their protest activities were killed or kidnapped.
As the year 1979 began, the attacks on prestigious members of the University continued:
- On January 25, 1979, Alberto Fuentes Mohr, Doctor of Economic Sciences, deputy in Congress, leader of the Democratic Socialist Party (PSD) and former Minister of Finance and of Foreign Affairs during the government of licenciado Julio César Méndez Montenegro, was murdered.
- That same day, a few hours later, the student and union leader Ricardo Martínez Solórzano was gunned down.
- On February 14, Manuel Lisandro Andrade Roca, secretary general of the University during the term of Saúl Osorio Paz (and a student leader during the events of 1962), was murdered.
- On March 22, the former mayor of the capital, Manuel Colom Argueta, was killed in an operation in which his murderers allegedly used a helicopter to direct the operation[89][lower-alpha 13] At the University, the rector Saúl Osorio Paz, after the attacks on his colleagues and threats against his person, began to live in the rectory, protected by student brigades of the university party FRENTE. In an unprecedented case, the rector ran the University from clandestinity for almost two years.[89]
The effect of state and para-state repression was worse on the student movement: the AEU ended up decimated. Despite all this, the association continued to be a belligerent organization during this campaign of terror. To protect itself, the AEU restructured its organizational form and, so that its leaders would not be so vulnerable, refrained from revealing their names.
In January 1979, a new generation of first-year students arrived at the University. Many of them had been members of the CEEM or of the student associations in the State institutes and had taken part in the events of October 1978. It was they who took over the leadership of the AEU. But it was much more difficult to replace the teachers who had fallen or were in exile, which resulted in a marked decline in the institution's academic quality.[90] Later, laws were proposed that severely restricted its autonomy, and, in violation of the constitutional mandate to grant it 5% of the national budget, its budget was cut considerably.[90]
Burning of the Embassy of Spain in Guatemala
On January 31, 1980, students of the University of San Carlos advised the peasant group from Quiché that wanted to make its precarious situation public. When the country's newspapers did not dare to publish their demands, and after all legal avenues to be heard had been exhausted, the group decided to take over the premises of the Embassy of Spain and use that occupation as a platform for its demands.[lower-alpha 14] The reaction of the government of General Fernando Romeo Lucas García was forceful: the police surrounded the Embassy premises, and after several hours of siege the situation ended with the burning of the room in which all the people inside the embassy had taken refuge, including all of its staff and some chance visitors, such as the former Vice President of Guatemala, licenciado Eduardo Cáceres Lehnhoff.[91] After the event, the only two survivors were Ambassador Máximo Cajal López and the peasant Gregorio Yujá Xona, who were taken to the Herrera Llerandi Private Hospital. There Yujá was kidnapped and an attempt was made to kidnap the ambassador, but he was taken out of the hospital just in time by the Ambassador of Costa Rica in Guatemala and then left Guatemala that same night. Yujá, for his part, was tortured and his corpse dumped in front of the premises of the Rectory of the University of San Carlos. His body was buried in the Plaza of Heroes and Martyrs of the Central Campus.[91]
Murder of students on the central campus
In 1980, every Wednesday in ordinary session and on other days in extraordinary sessions, most of the forty-four members of the Superior University Council (CSU)[lower-alpha 15] met to analyze the situation in Guatemala, which was alarming, since not only the university was under attack but also all the religious, union, peasant, student and political sectors.[92] There was no consensus on the actions to take: a small group suggested that USAC should lower its profile in its defense of the repressed sectors of Guatemalan society[lower-alpha 16] while the majority considered that the national university should continue to play its role as it had until then; there were also differences: the group that included Rector Saúl Osorio Paz advocated firmness and support for the repressed society without going so far as to provoke the government, while the more radical group considered it the university's duty to join the revolutionary process already under way.[92]
In addition to this climate of internal debate, every day there were university victims of the repression of the regime of General Lucas García, and the Rector's life was even in grave danger on a couple of occasions; and to complete the picture, members of the clandestine counterinsurgency forces infiltrated and operated within the university city.[92] The leaders of the university community decided that it was best for Rector Osorio Paz to leave the country; after extremely tense moments, the Rector was able to leave and carry out his duties in exile between Mexico and Costa Rica, being replaced in his functions in Guatemala by Leonel Carrillo Reeves, then Dean of the Faculty of Chemical Sciences and Pharmacy.[92]
After a month of relative internal calm, the CSU was summoned by the minority sector—among whose members were some university members with close contacts with high-ranking military officers—to ask for Osorio Paz's resignation, arguing that Osorio Paz's statements and actions abroad endangered the physical integrity of the university members who remained in Guatemala. Carrillo Reeves then stated that he would not continue as acting Rector, in order to force Osorio Paz to resign his status as Rector in exile or to return to resume his functions. Most of the members of the CSU rejected Carrillo Reeves's proposal, since it was inadmissible to do what the Army high command intended: to behead the university and, via new elections, subject it to military control. Carrillo Reeves had taken office by virtue of being the Dean who had held that post the longest; upon his renouncing the exercise of the functions, the Rectorship would fall to the second most senior Dean in office, Eng. Roberto Molina Mejía, who had begun his term in July 1976. The date for the handover of functions was set for July 14.
On July 14, 1980, Molina Mejía arrived before 7:00 a.m. at the Rectory of the University of San Carlos to comply with the mandate of the Superior University Council that he assume, on an interim basis, the post of Rector Magnificus. Guatemala was in the midst of severe repression, intensified after the events at the Spanish embassy.[92] They proceeded to prepare the signing of the record of the handover of functions; and just as Molina Mejía was about to sign one of the copies of the record, what sounded like the explosion of many firecrackers—known as "machine guns" among Guatemalan fireworks—was heard outside the Rectory Building. But that was not what it was; for several minutes, government security forces coming from Zone 7 fired on everyone who was entering or moving along the access to the university city from the Anillo Periférico, very close to the Rectory. There were dozens wounded by gunfire, and the fatal toll was eight students dead—all of them students in the Faculty of Engineering's vacation course. It was the first attack on the university grounds since 1962; the official explanation was that that morning a guerrilla group had killed the chief of the Zone 7 police station and that, in revenge, and in line with President Lucas García's public accusation that the university was a "center of subversion", members of that contingent had decided to attack the university members in the university city, immediately and indiscriminately.[92]
The university declared three days of mourning, closed all its academic activities and held a press conference to make its position known to public opinion.[92] The seventeen days during which Molina Mejía served as Rector Magnificus of the University were the most intense of the repressive era; his team took bold initiatives to overcome the crisis; friends showed solidarity with the Rector and the institution and offered their help to stop the bloodbath at USAC. The university proposed a national dialogue and reached out to academic, religious and political circles, but such a dialogue never came to be held.[92] There were even people who, at personal risk, allowed him to spend each night in a different house. Molina Mejía ended his tenure on July 31, 1980.[92]
Another of the candidates for Rector of USAC in the elections won by Osorio Paz, Bernardo Lemus Mendoza, who was working at the General Secretariat of Economic Planning, was murdered on January 29, 1981.[93]
Sale of narcotics on the central campus
The authorities have no interest in this issue and do not treat it seriously, for it is no secret to anyone that various sales of narcotics exist which anyone can acquire within the USA campus. The persecution against university leaders intensified and ended up dismantling the student groups; on the other hand, attacks of all kinds against the university increased: for example, at the beginning of the 1980s, in the surroundings of the Aula Magna of the Central Campus[lower-alpha 17] retail sellers of recreational drugs set up shop, taking advantage of university autonomy so that the police would not interfere in their criminal activities. This caused the Central Campus of the University of San Carlos to become known as a red zone where narcotics were sold with total impunity; as for the university authorities, they were unable to eliminate this scourge, since the criminals were heavily armed. This situation continued until 1989, when a police commando unit entered the university and forced the dealers to withdraw.[94]
Constitution of 1985: election of Magistrates
The Magistrates of the Supreme Court of Justice shall be elected by the Congress of the Republic for a period of five years, from a list of twenty-six candidates proposed by a nominating commission made up of a representative of the Rectors of the country's Universities, who shall preside over it, the Deans of the Faculties of Law or of Legal and Social Sciences of each University in the country, an equivalent number of representatives elected by the General Assembly of the Bar Association of Guatemala, and an equal number of representatives elected by the titular magistrates of the Court of Appeals and other courts referred to in Article 217 of this Constitution.
Article 269.- Composition of the Constitutional Court.
The Constitutional Court is made up of five titular magistrates, each of whom shall have his respective alternate. When it hears matters of unconstitutionality against the Supreme Court of Justice, the Congress of the Republic, or the President or Vice President of the Republic, the number of its members shall be raised to seven, the other two magistrates being chosen by lot from among the alternates. The magistrates shall serve for five years and shall be designated in the following manner:
a) One magistrate by the full Supreme Court of Justice;
b) One magistrate by the full Congress of the Republic;
c) One magistrate by the President of the Republic in Council of Ministers;
d) One magistrate by the Superior University Council of the University of San Carlos of Guatemala; and
e) One magistrate by the Assembly of the Bar Association.
Simultaneously with the designation of the titular magistrate, that of the respective alternate shall be made, before the Congress of the Republic.
—Constitution of the Republic of Guatemala, 1985.[95]
After the physical elimination and forced exile of most of the professors, stability at the Faculty of Law after the Civil War arrived with the deanship of Cipriano Soto Tobar, who began his term in 1988. Soto Tobar gave the faculty's path a significant turn, establishing political networks to favor political pressure groups by taking advantage of the new role that the Constitution assigned to the University of San Carlos:[96] with the new Constitution of Guatemala, decreed in 1985, the Faculty of Law and the University of San Carlos were entrusted with the task of participating through representatives in the processes for electing the Magistrates of the country's highest courts,[97] as well as the Comptroller General of Accounts,[98] and the Head of the Public Ministry.[99] Likewise, the University was assigned the power to commission a Magistrate to the Constitutional Court, which is the court entrusted with hearing matters of unconstitutionality.[100]
These networks had the entire decade of the nineties to consolidate themselves and weave relationships with the institutions and spaces with which they were connected as a university. After he left the deanship, the Superior University Council nominated Soto for the Constitutional Court, despite persistent rumors that he had been selling licentiate degrees and social service certificates during his tenure; nevertheless, his candidacy was accepted since his participation in those acts could not be proven, as no one presented reliable evidence—much less ill-gotten degrees.[101] Two of his actions on the Constitutional Court evidenced possible political deals: he voted in favor of validating the adoption networks and then in favor of registering General Efraín Ríos Montt as a presidential candidate, despite the prohibition of the Constitution of 1985, which did not allow him to register because he had taken part in a coup d'état.[102] In those years, the adoption networks operating in Guatemala came to charge up to US$60,000 per child and went from delivering one thousand two hundred children in 1997 to more than four thousand in 2004.[96]
Estuardo Gálvez—who began his term as Dean in 2000 and was later Rector Magnificus of the University—was one of the members of the networks established by Soto; realizing the importance of the Bar Association—which also took part in the elections of Magistrates and which until then had been controlled by lawyers linked to the country's traditional capital—Gálvez sought from the beginning of his tenure in the deanship to favor his graduate students with posts in public institutions so that they would repay their loyalty with favorable votes in the Bar Association.[96] After several elections, and with Gálvez out of the deanship, Soto's network defeated the lawyers of traditional capital in the Bar Association elections by 300 votes; according to the records, most of its votes came from young lawyers, its former students.[96]
Popular protests of 1985 and military takeover of the Central Campus
During the government of Mejía Víctores, the Mutual Support Group (GAM), led by Nineth Montenegro, was born,[103] and the Coordinating Committee of Secondary Education Students—CEEM—also gained considerable strength. Formed by students of the Instituto Nacional Central para Varones, the Instituto Normal Central para Señoritas Belén and the Rafael Aqueche Institute,[lower-alpha 18] it organized massive protests in September 1985 against the increase in public transport prices. At least ten people died in Guatemala City in the most extensive wave of urban riots since the protests against the government of Fernando Romeo Lucas García in August 1978. The riots began with popular demonstrations against the rise in the price of public transport but then became generalized against the economic situation the country was experiencing at that time. The burning of city buses, the taking of streets and mass demonstrations that resulted in the destruction of public infrastructure occurred almost every day.
The government responded with three thousand Army soldiers, supported by light armored vehicles, and with forces of the riot platoon of the National Police, who were deployed in central and peripheral areas of the city. Also, on the night of September 3, the University of San Carlos of Guatemala was militarily occupied, and it was said that an underground shooting range and subversive propaganda were found inside it.[104]
Several hundred people were detained, and General Mejía Víctores addressed the country in a radio and television speech in which he announced measures to curb the prevailing social unrest. General Mejía announced the closing of schools until further notice and the freezing of prices of consumer goods;[104] in the end, as part of the solution to the process, a student bonus was granted so that primary and secondary school students could ride city buses free of charge, and the students were promoted by decree. The students who graduated by decree in 1985 were received brutally at the traditional hazing "baptisms" that the various faculties organize every year, which eventually led to the regulation of these types of activities within the University.
Death of student leaders in 1989
In 1987, the president of the "El Derecho" Students' Association (AED), Willy Ligorría, was expelled from the Association of University Students for embezzling funds of the Huelga de Dolores Committee, for his direct participation in an embezzlement of the association's money, and for usurpation of functions by acting and signing as Secretary General in various international activities and documents.[105] After his departure, the threats against the members of the AEU's board began: in 1989 there was a constant escalation of threats, some of them signed by death squads such as "la Dolorosa", the "Jaguar Justiciero" or the "Ejército Secreto Anticomunista". Despite his expulsion, Ligorría maintained a very high and combative profile, while a friend of his, Marco Tulio Montenegro, remained part of the AEU.[105]
In 1989, several university students returned to Guatemala from exile with the intention of bringing about a resurgence of student coordination, which was practically dismantled. But on August 21, Iván Ernesto González was detained and disappeared; the next day, Carlos Contreras Conde, top leader of the University Student Movement (MEU), was kidnapped near the University. That same day Hugo Leonel Gramajo was kidnapped, being put into a red pickup truck with foreign plates. On August 23, Víctor Hugo Rodríguez Jaramillo and Silvia Azurdia Utrera, founders of the MEU, were kidnapped and taken amid great violence to two cars that blocked their path. Mario De León left the press conference held that day by the Association of University Students, and at 7:45 p.m. he was detained at a National Police checkpoint and his whereabouts were never known again.[105] Aarón Ubaldo Ochoa disappeared the following day.
During some meetings in which the response the students were going to give was being discussed, Willy Ligorría took another leader aside to tell him that he knew where Hugo Gramajo and Aarón Ochoa were hidden and that, if he wished, he could take him to them. In the month of September, other members of the student movement, Carlos Chutá Camey, Carlos Humberto Cabrera and Carlos Palencia, were kidnapped and turned up dead a short time later.[105]
After the murder of the university students, Ligorría was a speaker at some rallies at the University and took part in the gatherings that were held. On Saturday, September 15, at 2:15 p.m., he left for Panama together with Marco Tulio Montenegro and Byron Milián Vicente. Montenegro returned to Guatemala on November 11, 1989, to join the AEU, but he was already under suspicion, and shortly afterward he was murdered with a bayonet-type weapon. For his part, Ligorría was appointed Head of Investigations of the Public Ministry.[105][lower-alpha 19] On September 12, 1997, the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity, converted into a political party after the peace accords, formally accused Ligorría of participating in the murder of the students, alleging that he was a member of military intelligence.
On May 29, 1996, the Central American Superior University Council (C.S.U.C.A.) accredited the licentiate degrees in Veterinary Medicine and in Animal Science as regional programs.[85]
Co-optation of the Association of University Students
In the debate on the situation that the Huelga currently faces, it is common to hear that the violence and excesses are committed by a few "infiltrators" in the Huelga committees or by a few vandals, an explanation used even by the Superior University Council (CSU) itself. In the face of this situation, the university itself has not wanted to acknowledge that there are systemic, situational and personal components that combine to create the vandalism that has occurred within it and under the protection of the Huelga: there is a system that has been developing since the constitutional reform of 1985, which includes power struggles over the leadership of the "Huelga de Dolores" sheltered by the passivity of the university authorities.[lower-alpha 20]
By 1996, the year in which Peace was signed between the Army and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity, even the offices of the ministers of State and of the President of the Republic had withdrawn from the National Palace, which became a museum and is now the National Palace of Culture. With all these factors, the public that once packed the activities of the "Huelga de Dolores" was lost, and as a result the biting criticism of the No Nos Tientes and of the bulletins has neither the reach nor the impact it once had. Around that same time, the use of hoods allowed the Huelga committees to be taken over by people who took advantage of anonymity to carry out personal business, especially the introduction of informal-economy businesses onto the Central Campus of the University, which brought them large profits.[106] On the other hand, because of the University's new role in Nominating Commissions, in the election of magistrates to the country's main courts and even to the board of directors of the Guatemalan Social Security Institute—an autonomous government entity that handles billions of quetzales—Guatemalan political parties became interested in student elections and those of university authorities.[107]
In view of these changes in the dynamics of university politics, taking control of the Association of University Students—AEU—was fundamental, since from there one could come into contact with high-level authorities at the University, given the prestige the AEU still had at the end of the 1990s.[106] The process of seizing the AEU began in 1998, with the election that pitted Jorge Mario García—alias "Gilligan"—against José Inés Castillo, of the Faculty of Law—who by 2012 was elected deputy to the Congress of the Republic for the Renewed Democratic Liberty party—LIDER—and against Fernando Sáchez—supported by the now legal URNG—for the post of Secretary General.[106] Sánchez was elected on that occasion, but in the 2000 elections he again faced Jorge Mario García under unfavorable circumstances; his slate withdrew from the AEU elections one day before the vote upon noticing that intercity buses were arriving from the regional extensions of USAC, especially from the Faculty of Humanities, to support García, and after suffering intimidation by hooded members of the Huelga committee of the School for the Training of Secondary Education Teachers—EFPEM—then led by Byron Losley Johnson—alias "Gato".[106] Since then, the groups related to García have easily won the AEU elections despite allegations of irregularities, since there is no body that audits the results; the university and student authorities have not dared to intervene, because of the intimidation they suffer from violent armed groups that support the AEU leaders.[106]
In the days preceding the Burlesque Parade of 2000, the AEU was harshly criticized by several human rights organizations in Guatemala, including the Mutual Support Group—GAM—and the Human Rights Office of the Archdiocese—ODHA—because of the abuses committed by hooded persons who were supposedly part of the event.[108] The vandals' actions included violent attacks against alleged criminals, hijacking of city buses to attend events outside Guatemala City, and intimidating citizens into contributing money for the event.[108] In total, forty-three students were arrested, and approximately sixty students wearing hoods protested in front of the Palace of the National Civil Police and the National Palace of Culture to complain about the persecution of students and to demand the release of those they considered political prisoners.[109]
In February 2001 the association began to participate more in national politics; on that occasion, the then secretary general of the AEU—Jorge María García—reported that the members of his organization were going to work with the support of the municipal government of the capital of Guatemala to make sure that public transport buses did not overcharge users.[110] In March of that year, the association requested before the Superior University Council (CSU) a vote of no confidence against the rector of the University of San Carlos, since he had made comments about one of the magistrates appointed to the Constitutional Court that seemed inappropriate to the AEU and to several members of the CSU; however, the majority of the Council chose not to disavow the rector, and the vote did not proceed.[110]
In March 2001, the Honorable Huelga Committee, led by Byron Losley—of the group to which Jorge Mario García belonged—publicly received a donation of thirty thousand quetzales from the then President of Guatemala, Alfonso Portillo, who in turn was declared "Honorable Huelguero".[106] García's closeness to the Guatemalan Republican Front—FRG, Portillo's party—was due to the relationships established from the Faculty of Law: in 2001 the former dean of Law, Cipriano Soto, was elected Magistrate of the Constitutional Court—CC—by the Superior University Council—CSU—for the 2001-2006 term, thanks to the lobbying of the next dean of Law, Estuardo Gálvez (2000-2004), and of the rector Efraín Medina Guerra, both linked to the ruling FRG.[106] On March 15, 2001, Jorge Mario García was bitterly criticized for these events;[111] that day, numerous students surrounded the Presidential House while the ceremony was taking place, stopping traffic in the surrounding area in protest.[111] Some of the Huelga sub-committees disavowed García and the main members of the AEU and strongly criticized the Honorable Huelga Committee during the Parade of April 6;[111] in fact, neither García nor the rest of the board of the Honorable Committee took part in the parade.[111] The parade itself was criticized by the Guatemalan population, not only because of the dispute arising from the presidential donation but also because a hooded student fired into the air and wounded a private security guard.[110]
On May 24, 2002, Jorge Mario García received from President Portillo the Order of the Quetzal, awarded to the Association of University Students for its participation and achievements in the political life of the country since its founding in 1920.[110] While the ceremony was taking place, outside the National Palace of Culture a small group of students shouted slogans against President Portillo and García.[110]
Since García's arrival at the secretary generalship of the AEU, his group has maintained control of the entity ever since—although it changes its name from election to election—and has had support mainly from the faculties of Law, Economic Sciences, Humanities, Psychology and Dentistry, as well as from the schools of Secondary Education and of Communication Sciences.[106] But, above all, its stability comes from its displays of force, especially during the Huelga de Dolores season, and from maintaining cordial relations with the rector of the day and with the deans of the faculties where the students are useful to them during election processes.[106]
In 2006, demonstrating the interference that Guatemala's political parties have had in student groups, García began working in the Metropolitan branch of the National Unity of Hope party—UNE—thanks to his relationship with Ronald Arango, former student representative of the Faculty of Law and then a member of that party—and deputy elected to the Congress of the Republic for the TODOS party, which split from UNE in 2012—and with José Inés Castillo, then candidate for Taxisco, Santa Rosa, for the same party.[106] In the following elections he ran as a candidate for mayor of Guatemala City for the National Advancement Party—PAN—after falling out with the UNE leaders Sandra Torres and Álvaro Colom.[106] García has also been student representative before the Municipal Transport Company—EMETRA—since it was formed on January 30, 2001, by the municipal council of Álvaro Arzú, since after spending thirteen years in the Faculty of Law, he enrolled in the Faculty of Humanities in 2006 and has been its representative ever since.[106]
| Period | Name | Faculty/ Close to |
Comments |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2000-2002 | Jorge Mario García | Law |
|
| 2002-2004 | Byron Losley | EFPEM |
|
| 2004-2006 | José Aníbal López Silva | Law Jorge Mario García |
|
| 2006-2008 | Ludwin Moisés Orozco Orozco | Dentistry Byron Losley |
|
| 2008-2010 | Edwin Estuardo Losley Johnson | EFPEM Byron Losley |
|
| 2010-2012 | Roberto Muñoz | Humanities Jorge Mario García |
For the 2011 Guatemalan general election he supported the Patriotic Party, which emerged victorious. |
| 2013-2015 | Transitional and regulatory commission of the AEU | Jorge Mario García | It is made up of Guillermo Prera Cuevas, of the AEU; Darwin Santos Godoy, of the Honorable Huelga Committee; and Antonio García, of the faculties of Engineering, Law and Economic Sciences, who belongs to the EPA group. |
Distinguished alumni
A list of the University's notable alumni and faculty can be found at: List of notable alumni and faculty of the University of San Carlos of Guatemala.
Rectors Magnificent
Rectors of the early periods
| Period | Years | Image | Name |
|---|---|---|---|
| Royal and Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo | |||
| 1681 | Dr. José de Baños y Soto Mayor, archdeacon of the Cathedral, Preacher to the King of Spain and Doctor of the University of Osuna | ||
| c. 1800 | 
|
Dr. José Alejandro de Aycinena y Carrillo Cañas 1812, p. 2 | |
| c. 1805–1813 | 
|
Dr. José Simeón Cañas Batres Jáuregui 1896, p. 124Cañas 1812, p. 3 | |
| 1813, 1820–1825[lower-alpha 21] | 
|
Dr. Antonio de Larrazábal y Arrivillaga | |
| 1825–1829 | 
|
Dr. Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol | |
| Academy of Sciences | 1836–1840 | 
|
Dr. Pedro Molina Mazariegos |
| National and Pontifical University of San Carlos | 1840–1865 |
|
Dr. Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol[lower-alpha 22] |
| 1865–1871 | Dr. José FarfánPineda Mont 1967, p. 1 | ||
| Faculty Schools (Escuelas Facultativas) | N/A | 
|
Dr. Agustín Gómez Carrillo |
| 1944 | 
|
Dr. Carlos Federico Mora |
Rectors of the autonomous University of San Carlos of Guatemala
- Dr. Carlos Federico Mora (1944–1945)
- Dr. Carlos Martínez Durán
- Dr. Mario Dary Rivera
- Dr. Edmundo Vásquez Martínez (1966–1970)
- Lic. Rafael Cuevas
- Lic. Saúl Osorio Paz (–July 14, 1980)[lower-alpha 23]
- Eng. Roberto Molina Mejía (July 14, 1980–July 31, 1980)[92]
- Dr. Eduardo Meyer Maldonado
- Lic. Roderico Segura
- Dr. Alfonso Fuentes Soria
- Dr. Jafet Cabrera Franco
- Eng. Efraín Medina
- Dr. Luis Alfonzo Leal Monterroso
- Dr. Carlos Estuardo Gálvez Barrios
- Dr. Carlos Alvarado Cerezo
- Eng. Murphy Olympo Paiz Recinos
- Lic. Pablo Ernesto Oliva Soto (acting rector)
Faculties
The faculties of the University of San Carlos of Guatemala are organized as follows:
Board of Directors
Each faculty of USAC has a Board of Directors made up of the dean, who chairs it, a secretary and five members (vocales), of whom two are professors, one is a non-teaching professional and two are students. The members are appointed in accordance with the order established by Art. 29 of the Organic Law of USAC, and in the case of the fourth and fifth members, these are elected by the vote of students who have passed the first year of their degree program.
Dean
The deans represent and lead their respective Faculties; they serve for four years and may be reelected for a new term. When necessary, the Dean may be substituted by the professional members in their order, but in the case of permanent absence, elections for a titular Dean must be called under the terms stipulated in the Law and within the fifteen days following the declaration of the vacancy.
Academic Units
| Institutions of the University of San Carlos of Guatemala |
|---|
|
At present the University of San Carlos of Guatemala has 36 academic units:
- 10 Faculties;
- 12 Schools;
- 22 Regional Centers;
- 1 Maya Technological Institute of Higher Education;
- 1 Guatemala Sur University Technological Institute; and
- 1 Technology Transfer Department.
| No. | Faculty | Abbreviation | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Faculty of Agronomy | FAUSAC | fausac.edu.gt Archived 2008-09-05 at the Wayback Machine |
| 2 | Faculty of Architecture |
FARUSAC | farusac.com/ |
| 3 | Faculty of Economic Sciences | Economics | caeconomicas.usac.edu.gt |
| 4 | Faculty of Legal and Social Sciences | Law | derecho.usac.edu.gt |
| 5 | Faculty of Medical Sciences | Medicine | medicina.usac.edu.gt |
| 6 | Faculty of Chemical Sciences and Pharmacy  |
Pharmacy | ccqqfar.usac.edu.gt |
| 7 | Faculty of Humanities | FAHUSAC | fahusac.edu.gt Archived 2012-05-04 at the Wayback Machine |
| 8 | Faculty of Engineering |
FIUSAC | ingeniería.usac.edu.gt |
| 9 | Faculty of Dentistry | Dentistry | odontologia.usac.edu.gt |
| 10 | Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science | Veterinary | fmvz.usac.edu.gt |
| No. | School | Abbreviation | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | School of Science and Technology of Physical Activity and Sport | ECTAFIDE | |
| 2 | School of Political Science | ECP | cienciapolitica.usac.edu.gt |
| 3 | School of Communication Sciences |
ECC | comunicacionusac.org |
| 4 | School of Linguistic Sciences | ECCL | |
| 5 | School of Psychological Sciences | Psychology | |
| 6 | School of Nursing | Nursing | |
| 7 | School for the Training of Secondary Education Teachers | EFPEM | efpem.usac.edu.gt |
| 8 | School of History  |
History | escuelahistoria.usac.edu.gt |
| 9 | Higher School of Art | ESA | |
| 10 | School of Social Work | Social Work | trabajosocial.usac.edu.gt |
| 11 | School of Graphic Design | EDG | |
| 12 | School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences[112] | ECFM | https://ecfm.usac.edu.gt/ |
| No. | Regional center | Abbreviation | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | University Center of the West |
CUNOC | Quetzaltenango, Quetzaltenango |
| 2 | University Center of Izabal | CUNIZAB | Puerto Barrios, Izabal |
| 3 | University Center of the East | CUNORI | Chiquimula, Chiquimula |
| 4 | University Center of Petén |
CUDEP | Flores, Petén |
| 5 | University Center of the North |
CUNOR | Cobán, Alta Verapaz |
| 6 | University Center of the Southeast | CUNSURORI | |
| 7 | University Center of Santa Rosa | CUNSARO | Cuilapa, Santa Rosa |
| 8 | University Center of the Southwest | CUNSUROC | Mazatenango, Suchitepéquez |
| 9 | University Center of San Marcos | CUSAM | San Marcos, San Marcos |
| 10 | University Center of the Northwest | CUNOROC | La Democracia, Huehuetenango |
| 11 | University Center of the South | CUNSUR | Escuintla, Escuintla |
| 12 | University Center of Chimaltenango | CUNDECH | Chimaltenango, Chimaltenango |
| 13 | University Center of Jutiapa | JUSAC | Jutiapa Jutiapa |
| 14 | University Center of Quiché | CUSACQ | Santa Cruz del Quiché, Quiché |
| 15 | University Center of Baja Verapaz | CUNBAV | San Miguel Chicaj, Baja Verapaz |
| 16 | University Center of Totonicapán | CUNTOTO | Chuipachec, Totonicapán |
| 17 | Metropolitan University Center | CUM | Guatemala City |
| 18 | University Center of Sololá | CUNSOL | Sololá, Sololá |
| 19 | Center for Marine Studies | CEMA | |
| 20 | Guatemala Sur University Technological Institute | ITUGS | Palín, Escuintla |
Ranking at the Latin American and world level
- In 2021 USAC ranked 151st in the QS Latin American University Rankings of the academic ranking of universities in Latin America, and second in Guatemala, displaced by the Universidad del Valle.[3]
- The Webometrics Ranking of World Universities ranked the University of San Carlos 2757th worldwide and 172nd in Latin America.[113]
- Quacquarelli Symonds placed USAC in second place nationally, below the Universidad del Valle.[114]
See also
- List of universities and colleges of Hispanic America during the Spanish administration
- Nottebohm case
- Tridentine College and Seminary of Our Lady of the Assumption
- Technology Transfer Department (DTT-USAC)
- Guatemalan Civil War
- Huelga de Dolores
- Botanical Garden of Guatemala
- Spanish universities in the Golden Age
- Universidad SC
Notes and references
Notes
- ↑ In 1954 the coup d'état of the National Liberation Movement (MLN) triumphed; it was sponsored by the United Fruit Company and directed by agents of the CIA and the U.S. State Department who had ties to the American fruit company.
- ↑ Among the authors who have perpetuated this version of history is Juan Rodríguez Cabal, who, based on a letter signed and sent by the bishop to Spain in 1548, requested a university from the King. Cabal's work was first published in the 1950s, and as part of the celebrations of the Tricentennial of the founding of the Royal and Pontifical University of San Carlos in 1976, the Editorial Universitaria reprinted several of the existing works[8]
- ↑ The process prior to the issuance of the royal decree founding San Carlos can be learned about through various documentary sources; among the most important is bundle 373 of the Audiencia de Guatemala collection in the General Archive of the Indies.
- ↑ Information on the university's initial enrollment is imprecise and contradictory. The calculation has been made based on the data recorded in the university collection held in the General Archive of Central America. AGCA. A1. Leg. 1885, Exp. 12245.
- ↑ Between 1677 and 1678, competitive examinations were held to fill the seats or chairs at the university. The call was published both in Guatemala and in Mexico, from where it was also sent to Puebla de los Ángeles. The process took the university a year, but due to the disagreements that arose among those who were to choose the professors, the King decided to annul the appointments, leaving the professors in their posts but as interim holders and with half the stipulated salary. The competitive examinations are found in AGCA. A1. Legs. 1898, 1899 and 40422. The royal decree of annulment dates from June 6, 1680, and is found in AGCA. A1. Leg. 1885, Exp. 12245.
- ↑ The aim was to limit the excessive economic power of some brotherhoods and confraternities, their high number, the lack of administrative and fiscal control by the authorities, and public displays of piety, which were classified as signs of backwardness and fanaticism, especially those of Holy Week[21]
- ↑ The curriculum of the Faculty of Literature included: psychology and logic, ethics and history of philosophy, Latin language and literature, Castilian grammar, Spanish and American literature, and English and German literature.[48]
- ↑ Founded on May 22, 1920; among its founding members were Miguel Ángel Asturias, Epaminondas Quintana, Clemente Marroquín Rojas, David Vela and Manuel Coronado Aguilar, among others.[70]
- ↑ Popular universities were born in France and spread through Europe and Latin America during the first decades of the 20th century. In Latin America, the movement implied the emergence of a new political culture. In Mexico, the Popular University was founded in 1912 by members of the Ateneo de la Juventud. Among them were José Vasconcelos, Antonio Caso, Alfonso Reyes, the Dominican Pedro Henríquez Ureña and the Honduran Rafael Heliodoro Valle, who founded the Ateneo de la Juventud and later projected the idea of the Popular University across the region.
- ↑ Since eradicating illiteracy came first by virtue of its importance as the primordial element of education, after learning to read and write it was indispensable that workers have access to a series of general knowledge that would allow them to complete a minimal education.[72]
- ↑ Rafael Landívar University in 1961, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala in 1966, Francisco Marroquín University in 1971, etc.
- ↑ Mijangos López did not believe they would make an attempt on his life, since he had been in a wheelchair since 1958.[77]
- ↑ Colom had been director of the Center for Urban and Regional Studies (CEUR) of the University of San Carlos of Guatemala and a political leader of the United Front of the Revolution (FUR). Together with Fuentes Mohr, they were the most prominent members of the legal political opposition. Their deaths closed Guatemalan political space even further. These murders and threats against leaders of the FUR and the PSD continued in 1979 and 1980, and in later years against Guatemalan Christian Democracy.[89]
- ↑ Ambassador Máximo Cajal López had visited the peasants' communities some months earlier and had gathered information for a report on them, which was never published but whose draft still exists.
- ↑ The members of the Superior University Council are: the Rector, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the Deans of the Faculties, the ten representatives of the tenured professors, the ten student representatives of the Faculties and the eleven representatives of the professional associations.[92]
- ↑ This group was related to the highest military circles of the country.[92]
- ↑ Colloquially known by the university's students as "the Igloo" because of its particular architectural style.
- ↑ By 1985, the elites had withdrawn from these educational institutes located in the Historic Center of Guatemala City, and their students now came from the middle and lower areas of the city
- ↑ According to investigations carried out later, it was determined that Ligorría had strong ties with a "mara" from Zone 18, whose members went about armed (the university students suspected that the "maras" had been formed by the army). In addition, he was always accompanied by 3 or 4 supposed "Law students" who were never registered in that faculty. Ligorría was also affiliated with the Democratic Socialist Party (PSD), and although he squandered money on his university activities, he always maintained a revolutionary discourse, was a member of ORPA and maintained contact with Danilo Rodríguez, the FAR delegate for mass work of the URNG.
- ↑ In theory, each faculty or school has a students' association, democratically elected by the student population itself, which holds the leadership of each Huelga committee; however, due to conflicts between rival groups, there have been various anomalies.
- ↑ He was elected Rector of the University in 1813, but because he was one of the deputies to the Cortes of Cádiz, he was taken prisoner by the Captain General José de Bustamante y Guerra and was not released until 1820, when he resumed his post as rector.
- ↑ During the government of Rafael Carrera, a 30-year government in which the Catholic Church had great influence over the country's politics and education.
- ↑ Osorio Paz carried out the last months of his tenure from exile in Costa Rica and Mexico because of the death threats he had received.[92]
References
- ↑ Milla y Vidaurre 1984, p. 41. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMilla_y_Vidaurre1984 (help)
- ↑ Milla y Vidaurre 1898, p. 262.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Discover the top universities in Latin America with the QS Latin America University Rankings 2021". QS Latin America University Rankings 2021. Retrieved 2021-06-18.
- ↑ Cañas 1812, p. 2.
- ↑ Aycinena 1854, pp. 2–24.
- ↑ Paganini 1947, pp. 49–197
- ↑ Pavón Romero 2003.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Rodríguez Cabal 1976.
- ↑ Tate Lanning 1977, p. 8.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Hernández de León 1930
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Juarros 1808, p. 153
- ↑ Pérez Puente 2012, pp. 188–194.
- ↑ Pérez Puente 2012, p. 195.
- ↑ Juarros 1808, p. 154
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Macías del Real 1897, p. 211.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Martínez Durán 2009, p. 346
- ↑ Luján Muñoz 1980, p. 12.
- ↑ Martínez Durán 2009, p. 338.
- ↑ Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 110.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 111.
- ↑ Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 112.
- ↑ Cadena 1774, p. 24.
- ↑ Cadena 1774, p. 15.
- ↑ Cadena 1774, p. 16.
- ↑ Cadena 1774, p. 17.
- ↑ Cadena 1774, p. 18.
- ↑ Cadena 1774, p. 28.
- ↑ Milla y Vidaurre 1898, p. 311.
- ↑ Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 171.
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 183.
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 Batres Jáuregui 1894, p. XXVII.
- ↑ Batres Jáuregui 1894, pp. XXVII–XXVIII.
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 Batres Jáuregui 1894, p. XXVIII.
- ↑ Melchor Toledo 2011, p. 191.
- ↑ Batres Jáuregui 1896, p. 124.
- ↑ Cañas & December 19, 1803, p. 469.
- ↑ Milla y Vidaurre 1984, p. 58. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMilla_y_Vidaurre1984 (help)
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 Milla y Vidaurre 1898, p. 336-338.
- ↑ Milla y Vidaurre 1984, p. 56. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMilla_y_Vidaurre1984 (help)
- ↑ Viaje a Guatemala & s.f.
- ↑ Aycinena 1854, p. 1-16.
- ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 42.3 Salazar 1896, p. 16.
- ↑ Salazar 1896, p. 17.
- ↑ Salazar 1896, p. 18.
- ↑ Salazar 1896, p. 19.
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 Salazar 1896, p. 20.
- ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 Salazar 1896, p. 21.
- ↑ 48.0 48.1 Chapa Bezanilla 2004, p. 58.
- ↑ Arévalo Martínez 1945, p. 12.
- ↑ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes n.d.
- ↑ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes 2009.
- ↑ Museo Militar & s.f.
- ↑ Torres 2007, p. 12.
- ↑ 54.0 54.1 Arévalo Martínez 1945, p. 76.
- ↑ Torres Espinoza 2007, p. 14.
- ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 Silva H. n.d., p. 5.
- ↑ Silva H. n.d., p. 5-6.
- ↑ Silva H. n.d., p. 6-7.
- ↑ Silva H. n.d., p. 7.
- ↑ ODHA n.d.
- ↑ El Guatemalteco & March 22, 1907, p. 4.
- ↑ El Guatemalteco & May 22, 1907, p. 6-7.
- ↑ Arévalo Martínez 1945, p. 128.
- ↑ El Guatemalteco & May 15, 1918, p. 3.
- ↑ Hernández de León 1930, p. May 15.
- ↑ Note: Engineer Urrutia had collaborated with Eng. Francisco Vela in all the measurements and in the construction carried out to build the Relief Map of Guatemala in 1904-1905.
- ↑ 67.0 67.1 "Decretos del Organismo Ejecutivo". El Guatemalteco, Diario Oficial de la República de Guatemala - América Central (in español). April 25, 1920.
- ↑ "Decretos del Organismo Ejecutivo". El Guatemalteco, Diario Oficial de la República de Guatemala - América Central (in español). May 30, 1920.
- ↑ "Decretos del Organismo Legislativo". El Guatemalteco, Diario Oficial de la República de Guatemala - América Central (in español). May 10, 1920.
- ↑ 70.0 70.1 Silva H. n.d., p. 58.
- ↑ Fuentes Oliva 2012, p. section 25.
- ↑ 72.0 72.1 Fuentes Oliva 2012, p. section 30.
- ↑ El Guatemalteco 1929.
- ↑ Alvarez Aragón 2002, p. 181-190.
- ↑ Nuestro Diario & December 13, 1930, p. Front page
- ↑ Nuestro Diario & December 30, 1930, p. Front page
- ↑ 77.0 77.1 77.2 77.3 77.4 ODHA n.d.
- ↑ "Vida de Juan José Arévalo". Youtube (in español). Retrieved August 14, 2014.
- ↑ El Imparcial & November 25, 1944, p. 4
- ↑ 80.0 80.1 Esquipulas en línea & s.f.
- ↑ Corte internacional de La Haya 1955, p. 5.
- ↑ Corte internacional de La Haya 1955, p. 15.
- ↑ Corte internacional de La Haya 1955, p. 18.
- ↑ Molina 2011.
- ↑ 85.0 85.1 85.2 85.3 85.4 Facultad de Veterinaria y Zootenica & s.f.
- ↑ Centro de Estudios Urbanos y Regionales (USAC) 1998, p. 4.
- ↑ Centro de Estudios Urbanos y Regionales (USAC) 1998, p. 15.
- ↑ 88.0 88.1 Rakosy 2002
- ↑ 89.0 89.1 89.2 Aguilera Peralta & Romero Imery 1981, p. 135-138
- ↑ 90.0 90.1 Comisión para el Esclarecimiento Histórico: Agudización 1999
- ↑ 91.0 91.1 "Ni Uno Vivo. Quema de la Embajada de España en Guatemala". Youtube (in español). Retrieved July 2, 2014.
- ↑ 92.00 92.01 92.02 92.03 92.04 92.05 92.06 92.07 92.08 92.09 92.10 92.11 92.12 Molina Mejía & July 14, 2007
- ↑ Cerigua 2011.
- ↑ "Balacera entre policías y presuntos delincuentes deja 3 muertos en el Campus Central de la USAC". Diario El Gráfico, periódico guatemalteco (in español). March 10, 1989.
- ↑ Dighero Herrera 2002, p. 169.
- ↑ 96.0 96.1 96.2 96.3 Véliz 2014.
- ↑ Dighero Herrera 2002, pp. 169–170.
- ↑ Dighero Herrera 2002, pp. 180–181.
- ↑ Dighero Herrera 2002, p. 197.
- ↑ Dighero Herrer 2002, p. 214.
- ↑ Hernández Pico 2001.
- ↑ Castillo Zamora 2013.
- ↑ Siglo 21 & July 9, 2010.
- ↑ 104.0 104.1 El País 1985, p. 2.
- ↑ 105.0 105.1 105.2 105.3 105.4 Informe REHMI n.d., p. Los estudiantes del 89.
- ↑ 106.00 106.01 106.02 106.03 106.04 106.05 106.06 106.07 106.08 106.09 106.10 106.11 106.12 CMI & September 23, 2015
- ↑ Véliz 2014
- ↑ 108.0 108.1 Campos & Lara 2000.
- ↑ Campos Lara 2000.
- ↑ 110.0 110.1 110.2 110.3 110.4 Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada 2002.
- ↑ 111.0 111.1 111.2 111.3 Valladares & López 2001.
- ↑ School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences of the University of San Carlos of Guatemala
- ↑ "Latin America". Ranking Web of Universities. Retrieved 2021-07-09.
- ↑ Solórzano, Sara (2018-06-12). "La Usac, en primer lugar como la mejor universidad de Guatemala". Diario de Centro América (in español).
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Further reading
Decline of the University Students' Association and the Huelga de Dolores
- CMI (September 23, 2015). "De Olivero a la Isla de Gilligan: cómo fue cooptada la AEU, parte I". Centro de Medios Independientes (in español). Guatemala. Archived from the original on October 16, 2015. Retrieved October 4, 2015.
- CMI (October 4, 2015). "El alfil y la torre de Gilligan: como fue tomada la AEU, parte II". Centro de Medios Independientes (in español). Guatemala. Archived from the original on October 16, 2015. Retrieved October 4, 2015.
External links
- "Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, sitio web oficial" (in español). Retrieved July 23, 2012.
- "Artículos para Estudiantes Universitarios" (in español). Archived from the original on July 15, 2012. Retrieved July 23, 2012.
- "Hoy en la historia de Guatemala" (in español). Retrieved March 23, 2016.
- "Biblioteca USAC" (in español). Retrieved July 23, 2012.
