Agustín de Iturbide

Agustín I of Mexico
Constitutional Emperor of Mexico Style: His Imperial Majesty Motto: Independence, Union and Religion Residence: Palace of Iturbide
Emperor of Mexico
Reign	May 22, 1822 – March 19, 1823
Coronation	July 21, 1822 (Metropolitan Cathedral)
Predecessor	Himself as Regent
Successor	Supreme Executive Power
President of the Regency of the Mexican Empire
Reign	September 28, 1821 – May 18, 1822
Predecessor	Juan O'Donojú (Superior Political Chief of New Spain)
Successor	Himself as Emperor
Born	(1783-09-27)September 27, 1783 Valladolid, Viceroyalty of New Spain
Died	July 19, 1824(1824-07-19) (aged 40) Padilla, Tamaulipas, Mexico
Burial	Chapel of San Felipe de Jesús of the Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City (1838)
Spouse	Ana María Huarte y Muñiz
Issue	see Descendants
House	House of Iturbide
Father	José Joaquín de Iturbide y Arreguí, 1st Prince of the Union
Mother	María Josefa de Arámburu y Carrillo de Figueroa
Religion	Catholic
Signature

Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Arámburu, known as Agustín de Iturbide or Agustín I (Valladolid, Viceroyalty of New Spain, September 27, 1783 – Padilla, First Federal Republic of Mexico, July 19, 1824) was a military officer and politician, proclaimed as the first Emperor of Mexico.

During the early stages of the war for the independence of Mexico, Iturbide served in the royalist army, fighting against the insurgents. Later, within the context of the Liberal Triennium in Spain, he was appointed commander to fight Vicente Guerrero, leader of the rebels in the Sierra Madre del Sur. He proclaimed the Plan of Iguala on February 24, 1821. Later, in August of the same year, he signed the Treaties of Córdoba with Juan O'Donojú. In this way independence was consummated on September 27, 1821.

Iturbide presided over the regency of the first Mexican provisional government. On May 18, 1822, he was proclaimed emperor in the streets of the capital, and the Congress formally elected him the following day, May 19, so that he would take his solemn oath of office on the following May 22, and he was crowned two months later with the name of Agustín I. In December 1822, Antonio López de Santa Anna proclaimed the Plan of Veracruz, causing the former insurgents of republican ideas, dissatisfied with the imperial regime, to rise up in arms. In February 1823, the Plan of Casa Mata was signed; as a result, the Bourbonists and republicans joined forces to support the overthrow of Iturbide. The Emperor decided to abdicate in March 1823 and went into exile in Europe.

During his absence, the Mexican Congress, previously reinstated by Agustín I, declared him a "traitor and outlaw should he appear on Mexican territory, declaring him a public enemy of the State, as well as anyone who helps him return". Iturbide, unaware of this resolution, returned to Mexico in July 1824 to warn the government about a conspiracy to reconquer Mexico. Upon landing in Tamaulipas he was arrested and subsequently executed by a firing squad.

Birth and early years

He was born on September 27, 1783, in Valladolid —the city corresponding to modern-day Morelia—, capital of the state of Michoacán, Mexico. His parents were José Joaquín de Iturbide y Arregui, born in 1742 in the town of Peralta, Navarre, and María Josefa de Arámburu y Carrillo de Figueroa, also a native of Valladolid, Michoacán. The Aramburu family came from Oyarzun, Guipúzcoa. He entered the Tridentine Seminary to study Latin grammar, but abandoned his studies when he was fifteen years old to work in the administration of his father's hacienda.

In 1800, he joined military service as an Ensign of the provincial regiment of Valladolid, which was under the command of the Count of Rul. On February 27, 1805, he married Ana María Josefa Huarte y Muñiz, daughter of Isidro Huarte, also a peninsular Spaniard, provincial intendant of the district, and at the same time granddaughter of the Marquis of Altamira. With the dowry received of one hundred thousand pesos, Josefa Huarte bought the hacienda of Apeo in Maravatío.

Independence

Royalist officer

19th century engraving based on an oil portrait of Agustín de Iturbide

During the political crisis of 1808 in Mexico, Iturbide sympathized with the coup movement led by Gabriel de Yermo. In 1809, with the rank of lieutenant, he took part in the suppression of the Valladolid Conspiracy, led by the conspirators José Mariano Michelena and José María García Obeso. In October 1810, during the capture of Valladolid, he refused to collaborate in the pro-independence uprising of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who had offered him the rank of Lieutenant General. Faced with the advance of the insurgents, he decided to flee to Mexico City. Some time later, he took part in the Battle of Monte de las Cruces, under the orders of Torcuato Trujillo. His performance was rewarded by Viceroy Francisco Xavier Venegas, who appointed him captain of the Huichapan company of the Toluca battalion. His career was distinguished by the suppression of several insurrections of rebels fighting for the independence of Mexico. In 1811, he was posted to the south of the country, where he fought against the pro-independence guerrillas of Albino García Ramos, whom he captured in 1812, and of Ramón López Rayón, whom he defeated at the Bridge of Salvatierra in 1813. That year, he received his commission as colonel, and continued fighting against the pro-independence forces as Commanding General of the province of Guanajuato.

In 1815, he defeated José María Morelos, but was defeated at Cóporo by Ignacio López Rayón. His achievements earned him promotion to colonel. The parish priest of Guanajuato, Antonio Labarrieta, accused Iturbide of having destroyed and monopolized the local trade, and of detaining convoys and cornering the sale of wool, sugar, oil and cigars, feigning expeditions of the royal service. The complaints accumulated against him, added to new protests from the merchants of Guanajuato, led Viceroy Félix María Calleja to dismiss him in 1816, accused of embezzlement and abuse of authority. Although he was acquitted through the mediation of the royal judge advocate of war, he did not return to the command of his army, but retired to his properties in Michoacán. The following year, he settled in Mexico City, where he remained inactive.

According to Zárate, as recorded in the book Historia de México by the historian Lucas Alamán, when Iturbide was defeated at Cóporo he lamented the bloodshed to Captain Vicente Filisola, and stated that independence could be achieved with the greatest ease by making a pact between the insurgents and the King's troops, but he considered it necessary "to exterminate the former", because of the great disorder that characterized them, and then to put a regular plan into effect.

The conspiracy of La Profesa

Main article: Conspiracy of La Profesa

The triumph of the liberal revolution of Rafael de Riego in Spain in 1820 unleashed several fears in New Spain: on the one hand, the conservative sectors wished to avoid the application of the radical measures being promoted by the deputies in the Cortes of Madrid; on the other, the liberals of New Spain wanted to take advantage of the reestablishment of the Spanish liberal constitution of 1812 to obtain autonomy for the viceroyalty. The conservatives, made up of the aristocratic class and the clergy, began to meet at the Oratory of San Felipe Neri. These meetings are known as the Conspiracy of La Profesa and were directed by Canon Matías de Monteagudo. Because they were secret, the names of all the participants are not known with certainty. However, some of them had collaborated in the coup d'état during the political crisis of 1808 in Mexico, with the aim of disowning the liberal constitution and keeping the old laws in force to govern the colony.

Various plans were drawn up as the events taking place in the metropolis unfolded. The last one consisted of proclaiming the independence of New Spain to establish a monarchy, which would be headed by an Infante of Spain. To carry out this purpose, a military chief of prestige in the army was required, one who deserved the absolute trust of the conservatives. In this way, the participants of these meetings convinced Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca to appoint Iturbide Commanding General of the South. On November 9, 1820, on the occasion of the resignation of the acting Commander, Gabriel Armijo, the Viceroy summoned Iturbide to replace him. On November 13, he was granted the post. On the 15th, one day before leaving for the south, the new commander was confirmed in the post; he also requested the rank of brigadier and the assignment of the old regiment of Celaya, which was granted to him.

Thus, my beloved and respected general, I take the liberty of begging you most particularly and most earnestly to deign to place under my orders all the troops I have requested of you for this campaign. An effort by Your Excellency made at the right moment is what will decide the action. I await it with the greatest confidence, because Your Excellency cannot fail to recognize, with your perspicacity and military eye, that an opportunity lost in war is often the misfortune of a kingdom, and that this opportunity is often not a matter of a month or a day, but perhaps of a second. Once the blow I have in mind has been carried out, the troops will be able to return to their respective districts, and if in the meantime the capital (which God forbid) should demand attention, I will fly to its aid, as to any other point of priority...

— Letter from Agustín de Iturbide to Viceroy Apodaca of November 19, 1820.

Meanwhile, the liberals planned that Iturbide's compadre, Juan Gómez Navarrete, recently elected deputy to the Cortes, would promote a Plan of Independence in Madrid, which consisted of calling one of the members of the royal family to govern Mexico. At the same time as this happened, Iturbide was to march south with his troops, supposedly to fight General Vicente Guerrero, one of the few pro-independence leaders who remained, but also to convince him to join a new plan that reconciled the interests and positions of both the liberals and the conservatives.

Campaign against Guerrero and Ascencio

The General Command of the South extended from the districts of Taxco and Iguala to the coast of the Pacific Ocean. The royalist soldiers controlled the northern zone, which included Zacualpan, Cuernavaca and Cuautla; the western zone, under the command of Colonel Ráfols (Tejupilco, Sultepec and Temascaltepec); the eastern zone, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Miota (Ometepec, Tlapa and the Mixteca Alta); and the course of the Mezcala River, from the confluence with the Cutzamala to its mouth in the ocean, in the charge of Lieutenant Colonel Juan Isidro Marrón. The rest of the troops, which had been commanded by Armijo, were in Acapulco, Tixtla, Chilapa, Teloloapan and other small towns. For his part, Pedro Ascencio (Guerrero's second-in-command) was in Ajuchitlán and the mountains of La Coronilla.

Five hundred and seventeen men of the old regiment of Celaya, commanded by Captain Francisco Quintanilla, gathered in Acámbaro and set out for Teloloapan to be placed at Iturbide's disposal in the month of December 1820. Another contingent of two hundred men of the Murcia battalion joined the commander in Tejupilco. Iturbide met with Quintanilla and entrusted him with the draft of what would become the Plan of Iguala. Although it was contrary to the orders with which he had left the capital, Quintanilla decided to support him, as did captains Manuel Díaz de Lamadrid and José María González. The Frontera cavalry corps, under the command of Colonel Epitacio Sánchez, which had also fought in the Bajío, joined the royalist forces. By December 21, a total of 2,500 troops made up the main force.

On December 22, Lieutenant Colonel Carlos Moya, with a group of four hundred men, pursued the forces commanded by Vicente Guerrero in the Sierra de Jaliaca. At the same time, Colonel José Antonio de Echávarri pursued the forces of the insurgent Pedro Ascencio. Two bodies of royalist troops set out from Fort of San Diego and positioned themselves near Mezcala to cut off the communications of the insurgent forces.

Pedro Ascencio, with a group of eight hundred men, defeated Iturbide's rearguard near Tlatlaya on December 28, 1820. As a result, one hundred and eight royalist soldiers died, among them Captain José María González. The timely action of Captain Quintanilla, at the head of the grenadiers of the Crown and the dragoons of Spain, allowed Iturbide to fall back to Teololapan. To support the troops, the Viceroy sent 35,000 pesos collected by the Audiencia of Mexico and 25,000 pesos sent by the Bishop of Guadalajara, Juan Ruiz de Cabañas.

Five days later, on January 2, 1821, Guerrero himself, with four hundred men, defeated a subordinate column under the command of Carlos Moya at the Battle of Zapotepec, near Chilpancingo. When Iturbide realized that the insurgents had the advantage of knowing the terrain better and that defeating them could take him a long time, he decided to bring forward the plan he had made known to his captains, and on January 10 he sent Vicente Guerrero a letter in which he proposed an alliance.

... Without beating about the bush, which is not called for, I shall speak with the frankness that is inseparable from my candid character. I am as interested as anyone in the good of this New Spain, the country in which, as you know, I was born, and I must seek its happiness by every means. You are in a position to contribute to it in a very particular way, namely by ceasing hostilities and submitting, with the troops under your charge, to the orders of the government, on the understanding that I shall leave you the command of your force, and shall even provide you with some aid for its subsistence...

— Letter from Agustín de Iturbide addressed to Vicente Guerrero, January 10, 1821.

In the document he informed Guerrero that the former insurgents José Sixto Verduzco, Nicolás Bravo and Ignacio López Rayón had been released from prison; that deputies from New Spain had left for Spain to express before the Congress of the Peninsula and before Ferdinand VII the wish that one of the Infantes —Carlos María Isidro de Borbón or Francisco de Paula de Borbón— should govern New Spain. At the same time, he told him that he had sufficient forces to defeat him and that he could count on greater military resources, which would be sent to him from the capital.

Guerrero, who had previously rejected an offer of pardon, received Iturbide's proposal with caution and replied to him, in a letter dated January 20, that he had perceived certain ideas of liberalism. He explained, from his point of view, how the Americans had risen up in arms during the captivity of Ferdinand VII against the peninsulars so as not to submit to the designs of the Spanish Juntas. In addition, he expressed the dissatisfaction the insurgents felt when they learned of the inequitable treatment given to the American deputies in the Cortes of Cádiz and of the way in which Viceroy Francisco Xavier Venegas had rejected their proposals.

You, and every sensible man, far from being irritated by my rustic discourse, will glory in my resistance; and without departing from rationality, justice and sensibility you will not be able to refute these reflections of mine, since they have no other principles than the salvation of the fatherland, in which you show yourself to be interested. If it inflames you, what, then, delays you from declaring yourself for the purest of all causes? Learn to distinguish, and do not be confused; defend your true rights, and this will earn you the greatest crown: understand that I am not one of those who aspire to dictate laws, nor do I seek to set myself up as a tyrant over my fellow men; decide in favor of the true interests of the nation, and then you will have the satisfaction of seeing me serve under your orders, and you will come to know a man free of ambition, who aspires only to escape oppression, and not to rise upon the ruins of his compatriots...

— Letter from Vicente Guerrero addressed to Agustín de Iturbide, January 20, 1821.

Guerrero expressed little optimism regarding the deputies who had traveled to the peninsula, and reiterated that the motto of his cause was independence and liberty. He made clear that he was not intimidated by military forces and that everything not concerning independence would be disputed on the battlefield.

On January 25, Pedro Ascencio attacked the troops of Colonel Ráfols at Totomaloya, forcing the royalists to fall back toward Sultepec. On January 27, the royalist colonel Francisco Antonio Berdejo, with a force of three hundred men, fought the insurgents near Chichihualco at a place called the Espinazo or the Cueva del Diablo. During the skirmish the royalists suffered fifty-one casualties, and were forced to withdraw when they ran out of ammunition.

Embrace of Acatempan

Vicente Guerrero and Agustín de Iturbide at the Embrace of Acatempan (oil on canvas from 1870 by Román Sagredo, collection of the National Museum of History, INAH, Mexico).

File:Abrazo de Acatempan 1973.jpg

"Embrace of Acatempan". Work by Antonio González Orozco

Main article: Embrace of Acatempan

On February 4, from Tepecuacuilco, Iturbide wrote a second letter to Guerrero in which he proposed meeting near Chilpancingo to seal a peace pact, sending Antonio Mier y Villagómez as his emissary. On February 10, according to Lorenzo de Zavala, a meeting took place in Acatempan where Guerrero and Iturbide, backed by their troops, met, talked and embraced to seal the peace. According to Lucas Alamán, it was José Figueroa who was commissioned by the insurgents to meet with the royalist Commander. From then on, Guerrero's military forces placed themselves under Iturbide's orders. The latter reported the news to Apodaca on February 18, who received it with jubilation without suspecting the outcome.

Captain Manuel Díaz de Lamadrid left Teloloapan with orders to meet with Brigadier Pedro Celestino Negrete to request his cooperation. Captain Francisco Quintanilla left for Valladolid and Guanajuato with the same mission of contacting Colonel Quintanar, Colonel Anastasio Bustamante and Lieutenant Colonel Luis Cortázar. For his part, Iturbide met in Sultepec with Lieutenant Colonel Miguel Torres. In Veracruz, the deputies who were ready to travel to the Congress of Spain learned from Juan Gómez Navarrete —representative of Michoacán and an intimate friend of Iturbide— of the plan that was going to be proclaimed, but most of them viewed the news with distrust. On February 13, almost all of them embarked on the frigate Pronta, with the exception of Zozaya, González Angulo and Cantarines, representatives of Guanajuato, Puebla and Oaxaca.

Plan of Iguala

Agustín de Iturbide (19th-century portrait, taken from the book by Guadalupe Jiménez Codinach, México. Su tiempo de nacer. 1750-1821).

Main article: Plan of Iguala

On February 24, 1821, the Plan of Iguala was proclaimed, a political program of twenty-four points, close to both the Catholic traditionalists and the liberals. Among the most important points, it declared the independence of New Spain, proposed a moderate constitutional monarchical regime suited to the entity, whose throne was offered to Ferdinand VII of Spain or one of his brothers, as well as the exclusivity of the Catholic religion "without tolerance of any other". Iturbide sent the document to Viceroy Apodaca, to Archbishop Pedro de Fonte, to Canon Matías Monteagudo, to the oidores Isidro Yánez and José María Fagoaga, to the síndico Juan Francisco Azcárate y Lezama, as well as to other important figures of the capital. He also proposed forming the Governing Junta as indicated in point five of the document. In a private letter addressed to Apodaca, Iturbide asked him to preside over the Governing Junta, explained that he did not believe Ferdinand VII had voluntarily sworn the Constitution of Cádiz, and that if the Monarch or his family agreed to govern New Spain, a moderate constitution could be drafted, which would allow the fuero of the clergy and restore the privileges of which the members of the Church had been stripped.

To uphold the plan, the so-called Army of the Three Guarantees (religion, independence and union) was formed, bringing together the troops of Iturbide and of the insurgents, and which most of the other royalist garrisons in the country would gradually join. On March 2, Iturbide met with his officers in Celaya; a mass was celebrated and obedience was sworn to religion, to independence and to Ferdinand VII. In the capital, on March 3, Viceroy Apodaca published a proclamation exhorting the inhabitants not to read the seductive plans emanating from the rebel chief, which were contrary to the Constitution that had been sworn eight months earlier. On the same day, the Ayuntamiento of Mexico also published a proclamation addressed to the inhabitants to resist the attacks and intrigues of servile despotism, exhorting them in the name of religion to remain faithful to the King, to the Constitution and to the legitimate authorities. The absolutists who had participated in the Conspiracy of La Profesa saw with misgiving that the Plan of Iguala dispelled their illusions and upset their plans; irritated, they joined the government in the task of suppressing Iturbide.

On March 14, the Viceroy declared that Iturbide was outside the protection of the law, and offered a general pardon to those who had sworn the Plan of Iguala, provided they reiterated their oath of loyalty to the Constitution and to the King. In Mexico City the Army of the South was formed, with a force of five thousand men initially under the command of Field Marshal Pascual de Liñán and Brigadier Javier de Gabriel. Colonel José Gabriel de Armijo was again appointed Commanding General of the South. The militia was joined by Colonel Francisco Hevia's Castilla battalion, the Infante Carlos battalion, part of the cavalry of the Príncipe regiment, and Colonel Juan Ráfols, who was in Tejupilco.

Campaign of the Army of the Three Guarantees

Main article: Army of the Three Guarantees

The picture of the royalist forces loyal to the Viceroy deployed in New Spain was not encouraging for the Army of the Three Guarantees. In La Mixteca was Colonel Samaniego; in Oaxaca, Colonel Manuel de Obeso; in San Luis Potosí, the loyal cavalry under the command of Colonel Zarzosa; in Puebla, the Extremadura battalion; in the Eastern Internal Provinces, Brigadier Joaquín Arredondo; in the Western Internal Provinces, Field Marshal Alejo García Conde; in Durango, Brigadier Diego García Conde; in Nueva Galicia, Marshal José de la Cruz; the Navarra Battalion in Zacatecas; in Michoacán, Lieutenant Colonel Manuel Rodríguez de Cela; in Querétaro and the Sierra Gorda, Brigadier Luaces; in Orizaba and Córdoba, Colonel Francisco Hevia; on the leeward coast, covering Alvarado, Tlacotalpan and the sierra of Tuxtepec, Frigate Captain Juan Bautista Topete; on the windward coast, Captain Antonio López de Santa Anna; in Tampico and the Huasteca of San Luis Potosí, Captain Carlos María Llorente; in Jalapa and Perote were the Tlaxcala regiment, the dragoons of Spain and the column of grenadiers, commanded by colonels Calderón, Juan Horbegoso and Agustín de la Viña, respectively.

On March 16, Iturbide sent two letters: the first was addressed to Ferdinand VII, notifying him of the recent events and inviting him to New Spain to assume the throne; the second was addressed to the Spanish Cortes. In the missive he made plain his disdain for Hidalgo, the insurgents and the warlike events that had taken place, but warned that he was at the head of an organized army, which would defend the independence of the colony, and urged the deputies to allow the peaceful separation of America to avoid new bloodshed.

During the first days, conditions were not entirely favorable for Iturbide. The royalist Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Rionda retook the stronghold of Acapulco. Lieutenant Colonel Vicente Marmolejo, who was under his orders, defected in Cuernavaca, as did lieutenant colonels Tomás Cajigal in Taxco and Martín Almela in Temalaca, and General Pascual Liñán in San Antonio. The first advance was made by Colonel Márquez Donayo toward Cuernavaca and Temixco, forcing Iturbide himself to fall back to Teloloapan. By contrast, Lieutenant Celso de Iruela —who had served in the regiment of Celaya— declared in favor of the Plan of Iguala in Perote, forcing Commander Agustín de la Viña to barricade himself in the Fortress of San Carlos. Very soon Lieutenant Colonel José Joaquín de Herrera joined the Trigarante forces with eight hundred men and headed for Tepeyehualco and San Juan de los Llanos. On March 23, the priest José Rincón marched from Jalapa to take the town of Orizaba. Antonio López de Santa Anna was there, and was able to repel the attack on the 25th, but on the 29th Herrera arrived at the town. Santa Anna had no alternative but to adhere to the Plan of Iguala. In Izúcar, the former insurgent Nicolás Bravo had rejected a first invitation to join the movement, as he distrusted Iturbide. However, he was visited by the commissioner Mier y Villagómez, who convinced him. Bravo gathered a force of five hundred men and headed for Chilpancingo and Tixtla.

In the El Bajío region, colonels Anastasio Bustamante and Luis Cortázar seconded the Plan of Iguala. Together they advanced to Salvatierra, Celaya and Guanajuato. There, Bustamante ordered the taking down of the skulls of Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama and Jiménez, which had been sinisterly displayed in cages at the corners of the Alhóndiga de Granaditas since 1811. When the light company of Querétaro and the dragoons of Sierra Gorda joined, the contingent advanced toward Salamanca, Irapuato, Silao, León and San Miguel el Grande, managing to gather 6,000 troops. On March 29, Apodaca uselessly asked the troops to desert the banner raised by Iturbide. Sergeant Major Juan Domínguez, stationed in Apatzingán, and Lieutenant Colonel Miguel Barragán in Ario, joined the pro-independence plans and advanced toward Pátzcuaro. Captains Vicente Filisola and Juan José Codallos declared in favor of Iturbide in the town of Tuzantla. Iturbide headed for El Bajío, but not before ordering Echávarri and Guerrero to defend the southern zone near Mezcala and later recover the port of Acapulco. Ramón López Rayón joined Iturbide in Cutzamala, who ordered him to head for the hill of Cóporo in Zitácuaro. In Acámbaro, the First Chief Iturbide met with Bustamante and Cortázar.

The royalist Field Marshal Pascual de Liñán remained watchful at the hacienda of San Antonio during the month of March. At the beginning of April, the royalist commanders Márquez Donayo and Gabriel de Armijo made an advance toward Zacualpan with the aim of confronting Pedro Ascencio. The royalist forces were defeated in the Sierra de Sultepec on April 9 and 10. A second attempt from Ixtlahuaca, led by Francisco Salazar at the head of three hundred royalists, was again repelled. On April 14 in Lerma, Captain Ignacio Inclán declared in favor of independence and attacked the royalists' rearguard, but was defeated. José Joaquín de Herrera headed for Puebla, where he faced the royalists of General Ciriaco del Llano, who were led by Lieutenant Colonel Zarzosa. As a result, several members of the royalist troops defected and joined Herrera. Zarzosa had to fall back to the City of Puebla with a handful of men. Herrera advanced to Chalchicomula and Tepeaca. The royalist Colonel Hevia began the pursuit of Nicolás Bravo, who had headed for Huejotzingo. From that town the pro-independence forces feigned taking up positions to carry out an attack on Puebla. The ruse was a success, as Hevia was forced to return to Izúcar. In this way, Bravo advanced to Tlaxcala and Huamantla. On April 20, the insurgent Guadalupe Victoria, who had remained in hiding in the "Cave of Tía Chana", met with Santa Anna, issuing a manifesto, and his former comrades seconded him.

Hevia sent 1,400 men led by Ciriaco del Llano to fight the forces of José Joaquín de Herrera in Tepeaca. Nicolás Bravo set out to help him, arriving in the area on April 21. After three days of siege, with casualties on both sides, the Trigarante forces left the town. On April 25, Antonio López de Santa Anna headed for Alvarado, where he defeated the royalists under the command of Captain Juan Bautista Topete, whom Santa Anna allowed to withdraw to Veracruz. Herrera's forces moved to Córdoba and were pursued by Hevia, who besieged the town on May 15. The assault was led by Commander Hevia himself, who fell dead in the action. Lieutenant Colonel Blas del Castillo y Luna continued the attack, but was repelled by the officers Francisco de la Llave and José Velázquez. The royalist military actions continued until the 18th without success. On the 19th Santa Anna came to the aid of the pro-independence forces to break the siege with a force of 300 infantrymen and 250 cavalrymen. Blas del Castillo's men withstood the onslaught. On the 20th the royalists asked for a truce but resumed the attack at night. The firing ceased in the early morning of the 21st. The attackers abandoned their positions and were pursued by the cavalry as far as Orizaba.

On May 1, the First Chief of the Army of the Three Guarantees was in León and decided to set out for the capital of Nueva Galicia to meet with the royalist Marshal José de la Cruz. Iturbide, accompanied by Bustamante, met with José de la Cruz and Pedro Celestino Negrete on May 6 in Yurécuaro. He asked De la Cruz to try to convince the Viceroy to accept the Plan of Iguala, offering for his part the immediate cessation of hostilities. De la Cruz agreed to send the offer to the Viceroy, returned to Guadalajara and commissioned Lieutenant Colonel Yandiola to travel to Mexico City with Iturbide's proposals. The Viceroy furiously rejected the proposal. Meanwhile, the supreme commander of the Army of the Three Guarantees headed for the city of Valladolid, which was guarded by Colonel Quintanar, who had 1,600 men and 45 pieces of artillery. On May 12 the Trigarante cavalry advanced to Huaniqueo while the infantry established itself in Chucándiro next to Lake Cuitzeo. On the 13th and 14th, Iturbide sent letters to Quintanar and to the Ayuntamiento asking for adherence to the Plan of Iguala. The first reaction of the royalists was negative. However, as on other occasions, part of the troops deserted. Juan José Andrade, with a large part of the regiment of dragoons of Nueva Galicia, joined the besieging forces. On the 18th the city was surrounded by the Trigarante forces. Faced with this situation, Quintanar chose to capitulate. The city was taken without a single shot being fired.

In Ixmiquilpan, Doctor José Antonio Magos proclaimed the Plan of Iguala and a large group of armed inhabitants seconded him. However, on May 23 the royalist Colonel José María Novoa attacked this new uprising. The royalists inflicted 60 casualties on the pro-independence forces and dispersed the group. In the south, the Trigarante Colonel Juan Álvarez had kept Acapulco under siege. The royalist Commander Márquez Donayo had headed for the port, but received direct orders from the Viceroy to join Cristóbal Húber in Tixtla, who was fighting the forces of Pedro Ascencio. On June 3, near Tetecala, the royalist forces were victorious. Ascencio died in combat; his head was cut off and later sent to Cuernavaca to be displayed to the population as a trophy.

In Mexico City, the news was received with joy, but during the first days of June, more than two hundred men of the guards of San Lázaro, Candelaria and Belén deserted and left to join the Trigarante forces. In response, the Viceroy declared the compulsory enlistment of all males between 16 and 50 years of age. On June 13 in Guadalajara, the division of Pedro Celestino Negrete declared in favor of independence, as did Colonel José Antonio Andrade. José de la Cruz had to flee the capital in the direction of Zacatecas to join the royalist troops of Hermenegildo Revueltas, while on the 14th, in the capital of Nueva Galicia, the provincial deputation, the ecclesiastical Cabildo and the tribunal of the Consulado swore the Plan of Iguala. The Archbishop celebrated a mass and the Te Deum was sung.

For his part, José de la Cruz headed for Durango. In Saín Alto the mixed battalion of Zacatecas, under the command of José María Borrego, defected and returned to its town, where the Plan of Iguala was proclaimed. The rest of De la Cruz's troops reached Durango on July 4, where they were well received by Bishop Juan Francisco Castañiza, who was opposed to Iturbide's plan. On the other hand, on July 6, Negrete entered the city of Aguascalientes, where independence was acclaimed. In San Juan del Río, the royalist garrison, made up of 1,100 troops, began to desert en masse. Thus Colonel Novoa, in command of the town with only 400 men loyal to the Viceroy, decided to capitulate on June 7. Iturbide headed for the town with an escort of thirty men led by Mariano Paredes. They were attacked unsuccessfully in the ravine of Arroyo-Hondo by a force of 400 royalists commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Froilán Bocinos, who suffered more than forty casualties. This military defense was primarily in the charge of Captain Mariano Paredes, for which Iturbide granted him a shield with the motto thirty against four hundred.

Guadalupe Victoria met with Iturbide in San Juan del Río. According to Lucas Alamán, the former insurgent proposed to the supreme commander adopting a republican government without calling Ferdinand VII or any other Bourbon. Instead, he recommended calling some former insurgent who was single and had not been pardoned, who would marry some Guatemalan Indian woman to form a single nation with both countries. Guadalupe Victoria was the only one who met those characteristics. According to Vicente Rocafuerte, in the interview the former insurgent showed some notes and asked that the Plan of Iguala be corrected to adapt a system of moderate monarchy. The two versions agree on a refusal on Iturbide's part, even with a reply from the supreme commander based on the saying "if he's getting better on gruel, let's keep giving him gruel". The relationship between the two figures was one of support for independence, but with mutual personal suspicion.

On June 10, the royalist Brigadier Luaces was in Querétaro with a force of 650 men. On the 15th, 800 men under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Pedro Pérez de San Julián and Lieutenant Colonel Bracho set out from San Luis Potosí toward San Luis de la Paz with orders to support the town. Iturbide issued orders to José Antonio de Echevárri to intercept the royalist contingent; he was also joined by the forces of Colonel Arlegui from Chichimequillas, Lieutenant Colonel Gaspar López from San Miguel el Grande and Juan José Codallos from San Juan del Río. On the 20th, near San Luis de la Paz, Echávarri met with the royalists to open a peace dialogue. Meanwhile, new Trigarante troops, under the command of colonels Moctezuma, Anastasio Bustamante and Juan Domínguez, arrived at the town. On the 23rd, San Julián and Bracho laid down their arms in San Luis de la Paz. The Trigarante forces numbered 10,000 men in the area. When Brigadier Luaces learned that he would not receive reinforcements, he decided to entrench himself in the convent of La Cruz in Querétaro, but on the 27th he surrendered without offering resistance. There, Iturbide decided to exempt the indigenous people from the alcabala tax.

The supreme commander of the Trigarante army ordered Vicente Filisola to head for the Valley of Toluca. The area was guarded from Lerma by the royalist Colonel Ángel Díaz del Castillo, who, upon learning of the advance, set out for the city of Toluca with a force of 800 men. On June 18 the defenders were surrounded, and a battle ensued in which 300 royalists died, among them Major Ramón Puig, as well as fifteen Trigarante soldiers.

In Perote, Antonio López de Santa Anna had kept the royalist forces of Commander Agustín de la Viña besieged in the Fortress of San Carlos. On the 11th, the royalist Colonel Samaniego broke the siege, forcing Santa Anna to fall back to La Hoya. José Joaquín de Herrera met with Santa Anna, and both decided that the former would head for Puebla and the latter for Veracruz to cut off supplies to the royalist forces. On June 29, Santa Anna fought a minor engagement at the bastion of Santa Bárbara, and was repelled. On July 4 he moved to Casa Mata, where he planned to take the bastion of La Merced. On the 7th he stormed the bastions of Santa Lucía and Santa Bárbara. Encouraged by the result, he decided to march on the Artillery Practice School and the Bastion of Santiago, as well as to take the Fijo barracks defended by Colonel José Rincón. During the battle a heavy downpour fell in the region: the Trigarante soldiers' ammunition got wet and consequently the military action was a disaster. The soldiers of the royalist García Dávila inflicted more than one hundred casualties on the attackers. Santa Anna was forced to fall back to Córdoba, from where he sent an expedition to Puente del Rey to cut off a possible royalist advance toward Xalapa.

In Mexico City, the news of the royalist defeats caused indignation. As a result, a plot was carried out to depose the Superior Political Chief of New Spain, Juan Ruiz de Apodaca. On July 5, colonels Francisco Javier Llamas and Blas del Castillo y Luna, chiefs of the Órdenes Militares regiment and the Castilla battalion, were detained. These military corps, which were rapidly increased in number, surrounded the viceregal palace. The conspiring forces led by Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Buceli, as well as captains Lara, Llorente, Carballo and Béistegui, burst into the hall where Apodaca was meeting with the military chiefs Liñán, Novella, Espinosa Tello and Sociats. The mutineers demanded Apodaca's resignation, despite the protests of Marshal Liñán, and after discussing several alternatives, the superior political chief ceded the post to Francisco Novella. The new chief continued the compulsory enlistment and appointed Colonel González del Campillo military commander of Mexico.

Meanwhile, Nicolás Bravo had carried out a campaign through Zacatlán, Tulancingo, San Cristóbal and Pachuca; with a force of 4,000 men he met on July 1 with the former insurgent Manuel Mier y Terán in Cholula. The objective was to advance on the city of Puebla. The city was guarded by Ciriaco del Llano. Colonel José Morán came to his aid, moving from San Martín Texmelucan. On July 6, the besieged made a fruitless advance against the Trigarante forces, who increased in number with the support of José Joaquín de Herrera. On the 8th peace negotiations began, but it was not until the 17th that an armistice was finally agreed. The royalist Colonel Epitacio Sánchez, coming from Querétaro, advanced with a cavalry group of 500 men as far as San Martín Texmelucan. Iturbide ordered several divisions commanded by Quintanar and Bustamante to advance toward Mexico City to begin encircling it. At the head of the regiment of Celaya, he moved from Arroyo Zarco toward Cuernavaca, where he issued a proclamation to the population on July 23:

"You shall no longer suffer the yoke of the oppressors, whose language is insult, artifice and lies, and whose law is founded on their ambition, vengeance and resentments. The Spanish Constitution, in the part that does not contradict our system of independence, provisionally regulates our government, until the deputies of our provinces, once assembled, dictate and sanction the form most suitable for our social happiness."

— Agustín de Iturbide, July 23, 1821.

The supreme commander of the Trigarante army headed for Cholula on the 28th. Ciriaco del Llano arranged the capitulation of Puebla through colonels Horbergoso and Samaniego. On August 2, Iturbide made a triumphal entry into Puebla, which was considered the second most important city of New Spain. He was well received by Bishop Antonio Joaquín Pérez. Mier, Bravo and Herrera, who had carried out the military campaign, were overshadowed by the shouts of the population, who cried: "Long live Agustín I!".

In Monterrey, the royalist Brigadier Joaquín Arredondo concentrated his military forces, and from there ordered the treasury that was in Saltillo to be brought. However, the Treasurer refused to obey. Arredondo charged Captain Nicolás del Moral with enforcing the order and arresting the Treasurer. Instead of obeying the royalist order, on July 1, upon arriving in Saltillo, Del Moral proclaimed the Plan of Iguala. On July 3, Arredondo understood that resistance would be useless; he handed over command to Gaspar López and left for Tampico, where he embarked for Havana.

In Oaxaca, the presbyter and former insurgent José María Sánchez took up arms and headed for Tehuacán, while Lieutenant Colonel Pedro Miguel Monzón occupied Teotitlán. The former royalist captain Antonio de León joined the Plan of Iguala and entered Tezontlán to advance immediately to Huajuapan; from there he opened communication with Lieutenant Colonel Antonio Aldao, who was defending the town of Yanhuitlán; failing to convince the latter, the place was besieged for eight days. On July 14, the royalist Colonel Manuel de Obeso came to the aid of the besieged, approaching Huitzo. On July 17, León made an unsuccessful attack on this town, but in exchange obtained the capitulation of Yanhuitlán. On July 25, with a large contingent of Mixtecs and two hundred and fifty cavalrymen led by Francisco Miranda, he launched a new attack against the detachment that had remained in Huitzeo, which was finally overrun. Obeso was in Etla; there he was attacked by artillery fire for more than three hours, after which he requested a parley and surrender. Thus, on July 30, the Trigarante forces and the group of Mixtecs entered the city of Oaxaca without resistance. Shortly afterward, independence was proclaimed in Villa Alta by Nicolás Fernández del Campo and on the Costa Chica by Lieutenant Colonel Reguera.

Treaties of Córdoba

Commemorative plaque of the arrival of Iturbide and the Army of the Three Guarantees in Puebla (August 2, 1821)

Main article: Treaties of Córdoba

During his stay in Puebla, Iturbide was notified of the landing of Juan de O'Donojú at San Juan de Ulúa. The newly appointed captain general and Superior Political Chief of New Spain had left Cádiz on May 30 aboard the ship Asia, accompanied by a convoy of troops bound for Puerto Cabello, where he had previously made a stopover. O'Donojú had conspired against the first absolutist regime of Ferdinand VII. In 1821, he was military chief in Seville and led the movement for the constitutional restoration. Once the Constitution was reestablished he was appointed political chief of Seville; shortly afterward he was recommended by the deputies from New Spain —especially by Miguel Ramos Arizpe— to replace Juan Ruiz de Apodaca.

Printed version of the Treaties of Córdoba, signed on August 24, 1821 (General Archive of the Nation of Mexico)

On August 3, O'Donojú moved to the city of Veracruz, where he took possession of his office and was rendered honors by General García Dávila. In his speech he made very clear that he was a liberal with clear and upright intentions for the country. It was immediately confirmed to him that, with the exception of Mexico City, Veracruz, Durango, Chihuahua, Acapulco and the Fortress of San Carlos de Perote, the rest of New Spain was free of Spanish rule. That same day, he addressed a proclamation to the inhabitants in which he reiterated the uprightness of his intentions, rebuked the haste of the movement, which had anticipated the resolution of the Cortes, and asked that his command be accepted on trial, stating that he was willing to resign if the people chose another chief.

O'Donojú issued instructions to halt hostilities on the part of the royalists. On August 5, he sent Lieutenant Colonel Gual and Captain Pedro Pablo Vélez with two letters addressed to Iturbide, in which he confirmed that he was aware of the situation prevailing in the province, also expressing his wish to meet for dialogue. On the 11th, Iturbide sent an affirmative reply to O'Donojú. The meeting place would be Córdoba, for which he arranged for an escort to accompany the newcomer. He then headed for Texcoco, from where he sent a communication to Novella along with the proclamations published by O'Donojú. Novella requested an armistice and permission to send Colonel Castro, Lieutenant Castillo y Luna and Captain Carballo to meet with O'Donojú. Iturbide denied permission and immediately headed for Córdoba, where he arrived on the night of August 23.

On August 24, 1821, Iturbide met with O'Donojú. After hearing mass, the Treaties of Córdoba were signed. Among the main articles were the following:

I. This America shall be recognized as a sovereign and independent nation, and shall henceforth be called the "Mexican Empire".

II. The government of the Empire shall be a moderate constitutional monarchy.

III. Called to reign in the Mexican Empire (after the oath designated by article 4 of the plan) shall be, in the first place, Lord Don Ferdinand VII, Catholic King of Spain; and upon his renunciation or non-acceptance, his brother the Most Serene Lord Infante Don Carlos; upon his renunciation or non-acceptance, the Most Serene Lord Infante Don Francisco de Paula; upon his renunciation or non-acceptance, the Most Serene Lord Don Carlos Luis de Borbón Parma, Infante of Spain, formerly heir of Etruria, now of Lucca; and upon the renunciation or non-acceptance of the latter, whoever the Cortes of the Empire shall designate.

VI. In accordance with the spirit of the Plan of Iguala, a junta shall immediately be appointed, composed of the foremost men of the Empire by their virtues, their positions, their fortunes, standing and reputation, from among those designated by general opinion, whose number shall be considerable enough that the assembly of enlightened minds ensures the soundness of its determinations, which shall emanate from the authority and powers granted to them by the articles (of this Treaty).

VII. The junta referred to in the previous article shall be called the Provisional Governing Junta.

XII. Once installed, the Provisional Junta shall govern on an interim basis in accordance with the laws in force in everything that does not oppose the Plan of Iguala and until the Cortes draw up the constitution of the State.

In Mexico City, Novella had ordered the imprisonment of some sympathizers of independence, among them Father Villaseñor, the Franciscan Guisper and the presbyter Casanova, among others. On July 25, Gabriel de Armijo, Húber, Brigadier Melchor Álvarez and Colonel Concha had returned, so that the body of troops in the garrison numbered five thousand men. Quintanar, Bustamante and other Trigarante chiefs surrounded the capital, occupying Chalco, Ixtapaluca, Tepotzotlán, Huehuetoca and Cuautitlán. Novella's forces were distributed in Tacuba, Tacubaya, Mixcoac, Coyoacán and the Peñón.

Despite the armistice being in force, the proximity of the troops led to an encounter on August 19, known as the Battle of Azcapotzalco. The Trigarante Captain Velázquez made a reconnaissance advance into Tacuba, during which he exchanged fire with royalist troops, who were defending the passage of a bridge located between Tacuba and Azcapotzalco and were forced to abandon it. Anastasio Bustamante came to the aid of Acosta's column and together they headed for the hacienda of Santa Mónica. The royalist troops under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Buceli and Colonel Manuel de la Concha began pursuing the pro-independence forces, attacking their rearguard. The clash lasted into the night, and Bustamante ordered the retreat. As a result, two hundred royalists and two hundred Trigarante soldiers died in the encounter, among the latter the former insurgent Encarnación Ortiz. Enraged, the pro-independence forces executed the royalist lieutenant Vicente Gil, who had been taken prisoner during the fighting. The royalists abandoned their advanced posts and fell back to the city.

Santa Anna sent Captain Juan Nepomuceno Fernández, at the head of four hundred men, toward Acayucan and Coatzacoalcos. The advance reached Villahermosa, Huimanguillo, San Antonio and Cunduacán, places where independence was proclaimed on August 31. On the same date, the former royalist Llorente did the same in Túxpam. On August 26, the Field Marshal and Commanding General of the Western Internal Provinces, Alejo García Conde, had proclaimed independence in the city of Chihuahua.

In Durango, José de la Cruz had entrenched himself with a thousand men of Brigadier Diego García Conde. The Trigarante Pedro Celestino Negrete arrived in the area on August 4 and asked the royalists to surrender, explaining to them the situation prevailing in New Spain. The answer was negative. On the 14th, Negrete insisted with a new letter indicating that his troops amounted to more than two thousand six hundred men. The royalists requested an armistice, but not to negotiate surrender, rather to learn which turn affairs were taking in the capital. The military governor Diego García Conde again refused to capitulate. For this reason, Negrete decided to attack the city. The assault began on the 29th; the following day, Negrete was wounded in the face by a musket ball, which shattered his upper jaw. Finally, on August 31, the royalists waved a white flag from the cathedral tower. The capitulation was confirmed, and on the 6th, Negrete entered the city accompanied by his men. José de la Cruz headed for the port of Veracruz to embark for Spain.

Meeting of O'Donojú, Novella and Iturbide in Tacubaya on September 13, 1821

O'Donojú sent a copy of the treaties to Novella, who, upon receiving them in the capital, held a general council of war attended by Archbishop Fonte, Doctor Guridi y Alcocer and Juan Bautista Lobo of the provincial deputation, the members of the Ayuntamiento Juan Acha and Francisco Manuel Sánchez de Tagle, the canons Bucheli and Matías de Monteagudo, the oidors of the Audiencia Yáñez and Osés, the Count of La Cortina, representative of the Consulado of Mexico, some other civilians and the senior military chiefs. It was argued that O'Donojú did not have the authority to sign the treaties, which had to be ratified by the Congress and which contradicted the first proclamations made in Veracruz. In addition, it was concluded that the superior political chief should come to the capital to explain his position. Doctor Alcocer and Colonel Castillo y Luna were commissioned to personally notify O'Donojú of the council's resolution.

On September 5, Iturbide established his headquarters in Azcapotzalco. The Army of the Three Guarantees consisted of sixteen thousand men. On the 10th he distributed the military force on three fronts: the vanguard was under the command of Morán —Marquis of Vivanco— who was supported by Vicente Guerrero, and they positioned themselves to the north of the city; the center front was located in the west under the orders of Brigadier Luaces and Colonel Anastasio Bustamante; and the rearguard front was installed in the east of the Valley of Mexico under the orders of colonels Quintanar and Barragán. Iturbide appointed Brigadier Melchor Álvarez —who had just abandoned the royalists— as his chief of General Staff, seconded by colonels Joaquín Parres, Ramón Parres and Juan Davis Bradburn.

On September 7, Novella requested an armistice in order to open a dialogue with O'Donojú. The commissioners presented the council's resolution to O'Donojú, asking him at the same time to recognize Novella in the capacity of Superior Political Chief. O'Donojú's answer was negative; he even alluded to the violent and criminal removal of Apodaca. Novella decided to hand over command to O'Donojú, provided that the latter received it in his capacity as Captain General, stating that if the newcomer brought instructions to bring about independence, he could act accordingly without opposition on his part. O'Donojú, irritated, replied that he did not recognize the legitimate authority of Novella, which had been usurped from Apodaca. Both parties agreed to meet at the Hacienda La Patera, near the Villa de Guadalupe, on September 13, a meeting attended by Iturbide. After two hours of meeting behind closed doors, Novella, in the company of members of the Ayuntamiento and the provincial deputies, accepted O'Donojú's appointment as valid. The armistice was extended until the 16th, and the participants in the meeting returned to their respective headquarters.

Entry of the Army of the Three Guarantees into Mexico City, signing of the act of independence

Map showing the territorial division of the First Mexican Empire
     Treaties of Córdoba
     Acquisitions (1821-1822)

Entry of the Army of the Three Guarantees into Mexico City on September 27, 1821

Main article: Act of Independence of the Mexican Empire

On September 15, in Mexico City, Novella made public the recognition of O'Donojú; Field Marshal Liñán was appointed in charge of the military command, and Intendant Ramón Gutiérrez del Mazo of the political command. The sympathizers of independence were released from prison, freedom of the press was reestablished and the need for passports to enter and leave the city was abolished. On September 16 in Tacubaya, O'Donojú announced the end of the war. On the same day, Iturbide published a proclamation addressed to the garrison of the capital, exhorting it to make amends with important services for the harm that had been caused and inviting the whole population to gather under the banners of liberty so that they might share in the benefits of victory.

The Yucatán Peninsula was governed by Juan María Echeverri, a Captain General who depended in judicial matters on the Viceroyalty of New Spain and who had remained watchful. On September 15 Echeverri, informed of the pro-independence movements in Tabasco, convened the provincial deputation and the ayuntamiento in Mérida. Consequently, the independence of the Captaincy General of Yucatán was declared unanimously. Colonel Juan Rivas Vértiz and the lawyer Francisco Antonio Tarrazo were designated to present themselves before Iturbide and O'Donojú. During the first half of September, the province of Chiapas, belonging to the Captaincy General of Guatemala, declared its independence. Intendant Juan Nepomuceno Batres swore the Plan of Iguala. The inhabitants of Chiapas expressed their interest in joining the Mexican Empire.

Coming to Tacubaya to meet with O'Donojú and Iturbide were the governor of the see of Michoacán, Manuel de la Bárcena, the oidor José Isidro Yáñez, the Bishop of Puebla Antonio Joaquín Pérez, members of the provincial deputation and of the Ayuntamiento of Mexico, as well as members of the aristocracy of New Spain who had been opposed to the revolution begun by the Cry of Dolores. Iturbide chose the thirty-eight members of the Provisional Governing Junta, almost all notable for their social position, their wealth and titles. With the exception of Colonel Anastasio Bustamante, who had joined the Trigarante army six months earlier, the rest had been fervent supporters of Spanish rule; none of the former insurgents was called to participate in the Junta. Vicente Guerrero, Nicolás Bravo, Ignacio López Rayón, Guadalupe Victoria, José Sixto Verduzco and Andrés Quintana Roo were left out. On September 22 and 25 the members held two preparatory meetings; meanwhile, the expeditionary corps left the city. On the 23rd, José Joaquín de Herrera, at the head of the imperial grenadiers, occupied the fort of Chapultepec Forest. On the 24th, Colonel Vicente Filisola entered the capital with a division of four thousand men. On the 26th, O'Donojú was received with a ceremony. Through a communication, Iturbide announced the entry of the Army of the Three Guarantees for the 27th and noted that the brave sons of the fatherland had fought practically naked to make it independent and happy: "will you not commit your generosity to clothing the defenders of your persons and your property, who redeemed you from slavery?". The city responded to the call, sending to headquarters all the clothing that was in the warehouses, and it was announced at the theater that the proceeds of three performances would be devoted to footwear for the liberating army.

General Iturbide receives the keys of Mexico City from Colonel Ormaechea. Watercolor by Theubet de Beauchamp.

On September 27, 1821 —Iturbide's birthday—, Filisola's division left Chapultepec to join the bulk of the troops in Tacuba. At ten in the morning, the supreme commander of the Army of the Three Guarantees, mounted on a black horse and followed by the General Staff, advanced along the Paseo Nuevo until reaching the avenue of Corpus Christi, stopping at the corner of the convent of San Francisco beneath a superb triumphal arch. He was received by the senior Alcalde, José Ignacio Ormaechea, who handed him the keys of the city. The passage of the contingent was cheered with shouts of "Long live Iturbide!, Long live the Army of the Three Guarantees!, Long live Emperor Iturbide!". There were 16,134 men who entered the city: 7,416 infantrymen, 7,955 dragoons and 763 artillerymen with 68 cannons of different calibers. Among the officers were Domingo Estanislao Luaces, Pedro Celestino Negrete, Epitacio Sánchez, José Morán, Vicente Guerrero, Nicolás Bravo, Anastasio Bustamante, José Joaquín Parrés, José Antonio Echávarri, José Joaquín de Herrera, Luis Quintanar, Miguel Barragán, Vicente Filisola, José Antonio Andrade, Felipe de la Garza, Manuel de Iruela, Antonio López de Santa Anna, Gaspar López, Mariano Laris and Juan José Zenón Fernández. Most of the army was made up of former viceregal troops who had adhered to the Plan of Iguala. Only a minimal part were former insurgents from the South. At the end of the parade, O'Donojú, Iturbide and a large retinue went to the Cathedral of Mexico, where the Te Deum was sung. Afterward the leader issued a proclamation to the population.

Mexicans: You are now in a position to salute the independent fatherland, as I announced to you in Iguala; I have now traveled the immense distance between slavery and liberty, and I have touched the various springs so that every American might express his hidden opinion [...] You now see me in the capital of the most opulent empire, leaving behind neither streams of blood, nor razed fields, nor disconsolate widows, nor unfortunate children who heap curses upon the murderer of their father; on the contrary, the principal provinces of this kingdom have been traversed, and all, united in celebration, have addressed heartfelt cheers to the Army of the Three Guarantees and vows of gratitude to heaven [...] The Junta will be installed; the Cortes will assemble; the law that must make you prosperous will be sanctioned, and I exhort you to forget words of alarm and extermination, and to pronounce only union and intimate friendship...

— Agustín de Iturbide, September 27, 1821.

The following day, at nine in the morning, the Provisional Governing Junta, made up of thirty-eight members previously appointed by Iturbide himself, met in the council chamber of the newly named Imperial Palace. After an inaugural speech delivered by Iturbide, the Governing Junta was declared formally installed; immediately afterward, the members went to the Cathedral to swear the Plan of Iguala and the Treaties of Córdoba. After the oath, Agustín de Iturbide was unanimously elected President of the Junta. Following the celebration of another mass, a meeting was called for nine o'clock at night, at which the Act of Independence of the Mexican Empire was signed.

Regencies of the Mexican Empire

Main article: First Mexican Empire

Provisional government

Main article: Provisional Governing Junta

Triumphal entry of General Agustín de Iturbide into Mexico City

The Junta constituted a five-member Regency, which would exercise the Executive Power. Its members were Iturbide as President, O'Donojú, Doctor Manuel de la Bárcena, Isidro Yáñez, and Manuel Velázquez de León, who had been secretary of the Viceroyalty. On realizing that both presidencies had fallen to Iturbide and that this was incompatible, the Bishop of Puebla Antonio Joaquín Pérez was elected President of the Junta. In this way the Executive Power resided in the Regency and the Legislative Power in the Junta.

The Junta declared that the post of first regent was not incompatible with the post of head of the army. It therefore named Iturbide generalísimo de armas de mar y tierra del imperio (Generalissimo of the Sea and Land Forces of the Empire), or generalísimo almirante (Generalissimo Admiral). He received a salary of 120,000 pesos a year, one million in capital, twenty square leagues of land in Texas, and the style of Serene Highness. His father, José Joaquín Iturbide, was granted the honors of a regent, and was to become a Councilor of State when the Regency ended. Iturbide renounced the salary corresponding to the period from February 24 to September 28 and gave up 71,000 pesos to meet the needs of the army.

While the first acts of the new empire were carried out in Mexico City, there were demonstrations of jubilation in the provinces. The last royalists who rejected independence held out in Acapulco, Perote and Veracruz. Antonio López de Santa Anna led the military actions that secured the capitulation of the Castle of Perote on October 9. Isidoro Montes de Oca appointed Colonel Juan Álvarez to accomplish the same task at the Fort of San Diego in Acapulco, and that stronghold surrendered on October 15. In Veracruz, General José García Dávila preferred to remain loyal to the old regime. Dávila offered several times to hand over the city to Santa Anna. During the night of October 26, however, the Spanish commander decided to shelter with his troops and armament in the fortress of San Juan de Ulúa. This was the last Spanish stronghold to resist, and it did not capitulate until November 18, 1825. Nevertheless, Manuel Rincón, interim governor of Veracruz, drew up an act of adhesion to the plan of independence.

On October 8, O'Donojú died of pleurisy. His vacant post in the Regency was filled by the Bishop of Puebla, who in turn left the presidency of the Junta, which was taken by Doctor José Miguel Guridi y Alcocer. Four secretaries were appointed:

• José Pérez Maldonado for Finance.
• Antonio Medina Manzo for War.
• José Domínguez, Iturbide's secretary, for Justice.
• José Manuel de Herrera for Interior and Foreign Relations.

Iturbide instituted the provincial Captaincies General and appointed their governors:

• Anastasio Bustamante for the Eastern and Western Interior Provinces.
• Pedro Celestino Negrete for Nueva Galicia, Zacatecas, and San Luis Potosí.
• Manuel de la Sotarriva for México, Querétaro, Valladolid and Guanajuato.
• Vicente Guerrero for Tlapa, Chilapa, Tixtla, Ajuchitlán, Ometepec, Tecpan, Jamiltepec and Teposcolula.

In November 1821, some of the former insurgents who had ideas of establishing a republican government held a series of meetings at the house of Miguel Domínguez in Querétaro. They also wrote to Pedro Celestino Negrete in Guadalajara to invite him to take part. Negrete, however, considered that this was a conspiracy and alerted Iturbide. Seventeen people were arrested, among them Guadalupe Victoria, Nicolás Bravo, Miguel Barragán, the lawyer Juan Bautista Morales, Father Carvajal and Father Jiménez. The conspiracy turned out to be nothing more than meetings in which the future of the government was discussed. Almost immediately the participants were set free. The exception was Guadalupe Victoria, who remained imprisoned but shortly afterwards managed to escape.

From its first sessions, the Junta styled itself the Soberana Junta Provisional Gubernativa (Sovereign Provisional Governing Junta). Its members held diverse ideologies. Some had sympathized with autonomist ideas during the political crisis of 1808. Others had been deputies to the Cortes of Cádiz, supporters of the Manifesto of the Persians, or participants in the Conspiracy of La Profesa. Logically, a division into parties formed within the Junta:

• The Iturbidistas, whose principal members came from the high clergy, high-ranking army officers and the hacienda owners.
• Those with republican ideas, whose members were almost all lawyers or belonged to the lower clergy.
• The Borbonistas (Bourbonists).

Before appointing the Constituent Congress, the Junta tried to resolve some matters. On November 9, a request was made to reopen the novitiates and to restore the Hospitallers and the Society of Jesus. The motion was supported by the members of the clergy through Monteagudo, but it brought to light the opposition of the liberals, voiced by José María Fagoaga. The requests were rejected, approved and debated repeatedly without reaching a definitive consensus. As a result, the differences and antagonism between the parties deepened.

Once the Junta concentrated on how to constitute the Congress, three plans were presented:

• Iturbide's plan proposed a single chamber with representation proportional to the importance of the classes and with direct election. This proposal gave predominance to the privileged groups and eliminated the electoral role of the ayuntamientos.
• The Regency's plan coincided with Iturbide's but proposed two chambers. The upper chamber would be formed by the clergy, the army and the provincial deputations, and the lower chamber by citizens.
• The third project, which was supported by the majority of the members of the Junta, proposed a single chamber with no separation of classes, no proportional representation, and indirect election. This proposal favored the cabildos, the lawyers, and the lower clergy.

The last of these was basically the plan adopted, although proportional representation was not admitted in the form Iturbide had intended. Under this plan the ayuntamientos were to elect their deputies. These deputies would present themselves in the capital on February 13, 1822, in order to install the Congress on the 24th, the anniversary of the Plan of Iguala. The number of deputies would be one hundred sixty-two, with twenty-nine alternates.

Cross of the Imperial Order of Our Lady of Guadalupe

Meanwhile, Iturbide, as President of the Regency, adopted a paternalistic attitude, reducing some taxes and eliminating others. He rejected the "royal tithe" on mining and liquidated the monopolies on gunpowder and quicksilver. He also reduced import and export duties, lowered the rate of the alcabala from 10 to 6%, and abolished the tax of four pesos per barrel on sugarcane brandy. As a result, revenue collection fell by 57%, which meant a loss of more than five million pesos.

Although freedom of the press had been restored, on October 22 the Regency had issued a manifesto asking writers for moderation in order to avoid discord and disunity. On December 11, the writer Francisco Lagranda published the Consejo prudente sobre una de las tres garantías (Prudent advice on one of the three guarantees), in which he urged the Spaniards to sell off their property and leave the country. Panic spread among the privileged class, but the Regency acted quickly, refuting the pamphlet and arresting its author.

Carlos María Bustamante founded the republican newspaper La Avispa de Chilpancingo. In it he recalled José María Morelos and the former insurgents, and criticized the Junta's blunders, Iturbide's draft call for elections, and the economic policy that had been followed. Carlos María Bustamante was jailed, but his imprisonment lasted only a few hours, as he was acquitted by the jury. Nevertheless, several writers openly declared themselves against the Plan of Iguala. Some suggested opting for a republican government, while others encouraged Iturbide to take the imperial crown.

Because of the treasury's budget deficit, the Junta was forced to impose forced loans on the population, but the sums collected were insufficient. Priority was given to paying the wages of the troops, and secondarily the salaries of the officers. The Trigarante Army was renamed the Imperial Army and was restructured by Generalissimo Iturbide. The officers he appointed to command the regiments were José Joaquín Herrera, José Antonio Matiauda, Pedro Otero, Lobato, Santa Anna, Epitacio Sánchez, Echávarri, Cortazar, Moncada, Zenón Fernández, Parrés, Gabriel de Armijo, Guerrero, Bravo, Bustillo, Barragán, Filisola, Andrade, and Laris. He reserved for himself the command of the Celaya regiment.

On November 9, Iturbide proposed the creation of one or two military orders. The idea was approved by the Junta, and thus the Imperial Order of Guadalupe was founded. It was intended to reward military merit, services rendered in the civil or ecclesiastical sphere, services rendered to the nation, or services to the cause of independence.

As a popular measure, the Junta proposed exempting the Indians from paying the contributions known as the "medio real de ministros," the "medio de hospital," and the "uno y medio de cajas de comunidad." These contributions formed a fund with three purposes:

• To pay for the frequent lawsuits over land and water.
• To finance the operation of the Royal Hospital.
• To provide a fund that could be used for expenses of worship, the upkeep of schools, and relief in calamities such as epidemics or crop failures.

Although Fagoaga opposed the elimination of this systematized contribution, the measure was carried out. As a result, the Indians were left without resources for these expenses, since no replacement funds were provided.

In contrast, Juan Francisco Azcárate proposed formalizing the abolition of slavery on the basis of the twelfth article of the Plan of Iguala, in order to free the slaves who existed in the empire and eradicate this institution. However, the proposal was not carried out, as it was considered that this matter should not be dealt with until the Congress was established.

Captaincy General of Guatemala

Main article: Annexation of the Captaincy General of Guatemala to the First Mexican Empire

On September 15, 1821, in the Province of Guatemala, Gabino Gaínza convened a junta with the local authorities. It was decided to proclaim independence from the Spanish Government, since Ciudad Real, Comitán and Tuxtla had "proclaimed and sworn said independence."

In the following months, the Province of San Salvador swore allegiance to independence, and the Province of Comayagua and the Province of Nicaragua and Costa Rica declared their independence. In general, however, there was dissent in the region. The more distant provinces, as well as Chiapas and Quetzaltenango, wished to be annexed to the Mexican Empire. In the Nicaraguan city of Granada, however, and in the Honduran towns of Trujillo, Omoa, Gracias a Dios and Tegucigalpa, the population expressed its rejection of this idea. The Governor of Honduras rose in arms and occupied Omoa.

General Gaínza informed Iturbide of these events. Given the diversity of opinions, it was arranged that each town should choose whether to join. On January 5, 1822, the count of the votes showed a majority in favor of union with Mexico, but San Salvador was not of the same mind. Meanwhile, Brigadier Vicente Filisola and Colonel Felipe Codallos had set out for Guatemala. Gaínza declared the Province of San Salvador, headed by the priest José Matías Delgado, to be in rebellion. He dispatched a force of one thousand men under Colonel Manuel Arzú, who attacked and occupied the city. When Filisola arrived, hostilities were suspended. Despite the discontent, he was appointed superior political chief and commanding general of the province, which he declared annexed on February 9, 1823.

In Mexico City, Iturbide, in his capacity as President of the Regency, proposed to the Junta that the provinces of Central America should have their corresponding deputies in the Congress. The territorial extent of the empire reached 4,871,733 square kilometers. It stretched south as far as Costa Rica and north to include the Californias, New Mexico and Texas.

The Constituent Congress

Main article: Constituent Congress of Mexico of 1822

On February 13, the Spanish Cortes declared the Treaties of Córdoba illegal, null, and of no effect. The American deputies returned with the news that the Bourbon heirs refused to accept the crown of the Mexican Empire. Before this news was known, the Constituent Congress of the Empire was installed on February 24, 1822. Its members formed a heterogeneous group. Prominent among the liberals were Servando Teresa de Mier, José María Fagoaga, General Horbegoso, José Miguel Guridi y Alcocer and Carlos María Bustamante, who was named the first President of the Congress. Among the Bourbonists was Bishop Castañiza.

The deputies almost immediately came into friction with the Regency. The Congress proclaimed itself the sole representative of the sovereignty of the nation when Fagoaga asked: "Does national sovereignty reside in this Constituent Congress?" Immediately afterwards, and as previously established, the separation of powers was carried out: the Congress delegated the Executive to the Regency and the Judicial power to the courts. The oath of the Regency was drafted as follows:

Do you recognize the sovereignty of the Mexican nation, represented by the deputies it has named for this Constituent Congress? I do recognize it. Do you swear to obey its decrees, laws, orders and the Constitution it may establish, in accordance with the purpose for which it has been convened, and to order them observed and carried out? To preserve the Catholic, Apostolic and Roman religion, without tolerance of any other, to preserve the moderate monarchical government of the empire, to recognize the calls to the throne in accordance with the Treaty of Córdoba, and to promote in all things the good of the empire? If you do so, may God help you; and if not, may He call you to account.

— Oath of the Regency before the Congress.

The Congress summoned Iturbide and the members of the Regency to take the oath. During the ceremony, the Generalissimo tried to take the main seat on the rostrum, but deputy Pablo Obregón denied him the place, since it belonged to the President of the Congress. Slighted, the Generalissimo delivered an opening speech and took the oath. He reminded the Congress that the chambers were to be separated, but this was not carried out.

The opposition of republicans and monarchists became evident. The former aspired to a different form of government. The latter learned of the rejection of the Treaties of Córdoba in Madrid and that the nation could choose its monarch. They no longer wanted a Bourbon in Mexico, but rather a return to the former dependence on the Peninsula.

The Congress prohibited expenditures it had not authorized and eliminated forced loans. The annual budget was eleven million pesos, of which almost ten million were allocated to the expenses of the army and navy. The army numbered 68,000 men, almost double the number there had been in 1810. The reduction of these expenditures caused an open dispute between the deputies and Iturbide, since the army was the bulwark of the Regency. Iturbide delayed the issuing of the decrees on fiscal matters.

The Congress continued to deliberate on various matters without a set agenda. Among the most notable events was the imprisonment of Friar Servando Teresa de Mier, who had been elected deputy for Nuevo León while he was in the United States during the elections. On his return he landed at San Juan de Ulúa and was taken prisoner by José García Dávila. Carlos María Bustamante, then President of the Congress, asked the Regency to act accordingly. Protests followed immediately, and Dávila agreed to release Mier, although he delayed his answer.

The incident was used as an opportunity to review the case of Guadalupe Victoria, who had also been elected deputy, for Durango, but was a fugitive accused on charges of conspiracy. A safe-conduct was requested so that Victoria could come forward to take his seat, but the process was not completed. For his part, the former insurgent preferred to remain in hiding in Paso de Ovejas.

Iturbide's relationship with the Congress became tenser when the Minister of War presented a report requesting that the Imperial Army have 35,900 men. Deputies José María Fagoaga and José Hipólito Odoardo protested against this requirement and proposed a reduction to 20,000 men. While the negotiations were under way, a Spanish counterrevolution had begun southeast of the capital.

Iturbide burst into the hall of the Congress, outside of protocol and without the other members of the Regency. When asked the reason, he answered that there were traitors in the Regency or in the Congress. He then showed correspondence from García Dávila in which the Spanish Commander of San Juan de Ulúa vaguely offered support to the Spanish party. The deputies, seeing themselves incriminated, accused Iturbide of being the traitor, since it was he who had kept up the correspondence with García Dávila during the imprisonment of Servando Teresa de Mier. Tempers flared. Deputy Melchor Múzquiz proposed Iturbide's removal, but Fagoaga managed to persuade him to desist.

The Generalissimo accused eleven deputies of treason and sent Epitacio Sánchez at the head of a cavalry regiment to guard the Congress. The deputies feared that it would be dissolved. On Maundy Thursday, the Congress met to examine the accusation against the eleven deputies. The Minister of War was summoned, and after deliberating, it was determined by unanimous vote that the accused had not forfeited any confidence.

Meanwhile, General Anastasio Bustamante, at the head of four hundred men, had reached Tenango del Aire. Near Cuautla he defeated the Spanish troops who had set out from Texcoco to start the counterrevolution. Forty-four officers and three hundred eighty soldiers were taken prisoner. The Congress congratulated the Regency on the victory obtained. It was decided, however, to replace Bishop Pérez, Doctor Bárcena and Manuel Velázquez. Their places were taken by Nicolás Bravo, the Count of Heras, and Miguel Valentín, the parish priest of Huamantla.

The proclamation

Proclamation of Iturbide on the night of May 18, 1822

Main article: Iturbidist uprising of Pío Marcha

By early May 1822, the estrangement between Iturbide and the Congress had grown. During a session in the hall of the Congress, a congratulatory address to the Eleventh Cavalry Regiment was read. Among other things, the document said that "Northern America detested monarchs because it knows them." It added "that the system of republics adopted in Colombia, Chile and Buenos Aires should be adopted." The reading of the document was interrupted by deputy Alcocer. It was believed that the document was not an isolated incident, and General Nicolás Bravo was suspected of having taken part in drafting it. Amid heated tempers the reading continued, and the republicans applauded the document.

The division in the army also became noticeable:

• The Iturbidist generals were Anastasio Bustamante, Antonio Andrade, Luis Quintanar, Manuel de la Sota Riva, Zenón Fernández, Manuel Rincón, José Rincón, Antonio López de Santa Anna, Luis Cortázar y Rábago, José Antonio de Echávarri and Vicente Filisola.
• Against Iturbide were Miguel Barragán, Juan Horbegozo, Guadalupe Victoria, Pedro Celestino Negrete, José Morán, Nicolás Bravo and Vicente Guerrero.

Emperor Agustín I (portrait by Josephus Arias Huerta)

A group of Freemasons belonging to the Scottish Rite arrived in Mexico during O'Donojú's voyage and contacted the lodge already existing in Mexico. Its adherents included members of the army and of the Congress. The Masons conspired against the possible coronation of Iturbide. During a heated discussion attended by more than one hundred people, a Colonel stated that "if daggers were lacking to free themselves from the tyrant," the name they gave Iturbide, "he offered his avenging arm to the fatherland." The news reached the ears of the Generalissimo.

At ten o'clock on the night of May 18, a group of soldiers from various garrisons began to cheer in the city. Sergeant Pío Marcha of the Celaya regiment had the troops of his barracks take up arms. The group poured into the street proclaiming Iturbide with the title of Agustín I. Part of the population of the neighborhoods of El Salto del Agua, San Pablo, La Palma and San Antonio Abad joined the group. The din grew with the general pealing of bells, artillery salvos and shouts of "Long live Agustín I!" Colonel Rivero, then Iturbide's aide, burst into the theater and had the audience proclaim the Generalissimo.

On that memorable day, at ten o'clock at night, the people and the garrison of Mexico proclaimed me emperor..[..]..Immediately, and as if all the inhabitants were moved by the same sentiments, that vast capital was illuminated, the balconies were hung with curtains and filled with the most respectable inhabitants, who joyfully heard the acclamations of the multitude filling the streets repeated..[..]..Not a single citizen expressed the least disapproval, clear proof of the weakness of my enemies and of the unanimity of public opinion in my favor. My first wish was to present myself and declare my determination not to yield to the wishes of the people. If I refrained from doing so, it was solely because it seemed prudent to me to defer to the advice of a friend who was with me at that moment. He barely had time to tell me: "Your refusal will be considered an insult, and the people know no limits when they are angered. You must make this new sacrifice for the public good; the fatherland is in danger; a moment more of indecision on your part would suffice to turn these acclamations into cries of death." I understood that it was necessary to resign myself to yielding to the circumstances, and I spent the whole of that night calming the general enthusiasm and persuading the people and the troops to allow me time to decide, and in the meantime to obey the Congress...

— Manifesto to the World by Agustín de Iturbide.

Title page of the Act of the oath and proclamation of Emperor Agustín I (1823), a document held at the Museo Soumaya in Plaza Loreto, Mexico City

The next morning, an exhortation from Iturbide addressed to the Mexicans appeared posted. In it he confirmed that "the army and the people of this capital had just taken sides" and that it was for the rest of the nation to approve or reject the motion. He also asked the population not to inflame passions, since the representation of the nation belonged to the deputies. He emphasized that the law was the will of the people and that nothing stood above it.

The tense situation forced the Congress to meet at once in an extraordinary session. The Regency was asked to maintain public order so that such a delicate matter could be deliberated. Iturbide, however, did not act until the deputies requested his presence in the hall of the Congress. He appeared with a retinue of army officers, thereby forcing the Legislature to meet in public session. In the galleries of the Congress there were "masses," a mixture of deputies, civilians, friars and soldiers. Among the Iturbidist agitators was the Mercedarian friar Aguilar.

Deputies Alcocer, Gutiérrez, Ansorena, Terán, Rivas, San Martín and others confronted the popular excitement, trying at least to have the pronouncement legalized by means of a plebiscite. Deputy Valentín Gómez Farías, supported by forty-six of his colleagues, pointed out that the Treaties of Córdoba and the Plan of Iguala had been broken, since they had not been accepted in Spain. It therefore fell to the deputies to cast their votes for Iturbide to be declared emperor. Gómez Farías added that Iturbide should be bound to obey the Constitution, laws, orders and decrees issued by the Mexican Congress.

The deputies began to debate amid shouts and interruptions, and then proceeded to vote. Iturbide was elected by sixty-seven votes to fifteen. The crowd acclaimed the result and accompanied the Generalissimo, cheering him, from the hall of the Congress to his house. The approval had not been legal, since only eighty-nine votes were cast, whereas the rules of the Congress required the attendance of one hundred one deputies. It was later legally confirmed by the Congress in full session. The record of the election of May 18, 1822, established that on May 21 Iturbide was to come before the Congress to take the corresponding oath investing him as constitutional emperor.

For their part, the Bourbonists who still hoped to enforce the Plan of Iguala were disappointed. The Archbishop of Mexico, Pedro de Fonte, even decided to leave the country. The deputies then worked on drafting the oath that the new emperor was to take:

I, Agustín, by Divine Providence and by appointment of the Congress of representatives of the nation, Emperor of Mexico, swear by God and by the holy Gospels that I will defend and preserve the Catholic, Apostolic and Roman religion, without permitting any other in the empire: that I will keep and cause to be kept the Constitution that the said Congress shall frame, and in the meantime the Spanish one in the part that is in force, and likewise the laws, orders and decrees that the said Congress has issued and shall issue in future, looking in all that I do only to the good and benefit of the nation: that I will not alienate, cede or dismember any part of the empire: that I will never demand any quantity of produce, money or any other thing, except what the Congress shall have decreed; that I will never take from anyone their property, and that above all I will respect the political liberty of the nation and the personal liberty of each individual...

— Oath of Agustín I.

In this way it was made clear that the legislation in force was the Constitution of Cádiz together with the orders or decrees issued by the Congress. The senior army officers sent letters of congratulation to the Generalissimo. After taking the oath, the emperor delivered a speech in which he went so far as to exclaim:

Mexicans, I wish that if I do not bring about the happiness of the North, if one day I forget my duties, my Empire shall cease; observe my conduct, assured that if by it I am not worthy of you, even existence will be hateful to me. Great God! Let it never happen that I forget that the Prince exists for the People and not the People for the Prince.

— Fragment of the speech of Agustín I

Reign

Decree

The Sovereign Mexican Constituent Congress decreed the following on June 22, 1822:

* Art. 1. The Mexican Monarchy, besides being moderate and Constitutional, is also hereditary.

• Art. 2. Consequently, upon the death of the present Emperor, the Nation calls to the succession of the Crown his firstborn son, Señor Don Agustín Jerónimo de Iturbide y Huarte. The Constitution of the Empire shall fix the order of succession to the throne.
• Art. 3. The heir Prince shall be styled "Imperial Prince" and shall have the style of Imperial Highness.
• Art. 4. The legitimate sons and daughters of H.I.M. shall be called "Mexican Princes" and shall have the style of Highness.
• Art. 5. Señor Don José Joaquín de Iturbide y Arreguí, Father of H.I.M., is decorated with the title of "Prince of the Union" and the style of Highness, for life.
• Art. 6. Likewise, the title of "Princess of Iturbide" and the style of Highness, for life, are granted to Señora Doña María Nicolasa de Iturbide y Arámburo, sister of the Emperor.

Coronation

Coronation of Iturbide on July 21, 1822

On May 23, discussion began on the functioning of the empire and the provisions for the succession. It was determined that the Emperor's firstborn son would receive the style of prince and imperial highness, as would his brothers and sisters. His father Joaquín would be the Prince of the Union and his sister María Nicolasa the Princess of Iturbide. An official currency of the empire and a provisional Council of State would also be created.

During the viceregal period, the court of the Viceroys had been kept to the greatest simplicity. Nevertheless, it was laid down that the Imperial Household should include the following:

• A lord high steward, a master of the horse, a Captain of the guard, and aides to the Emperor.
• A grand almoner, chaplains of H.M., honorary chaplains, a chief chaplain, a Lieutenant of the chief chaplaincy, and a private chaplain of the family.
• Confessors, preachers and honorary preachers.
• A governor of the princes, a master of ceremonies, and a palace sommelier.
• Gentlemen of the bedchamber in service and stewards of the week.
• A mistress of the robes, a first lady and chief keeper, ladies, honorary ladies, and chambermaids.
• A physician and surgeon of the chamber of H.M., and a physician and surgeon of the imperial family.
• A master of the knights, pages, a master of the princes, and tutors.
• Palace ushers, valets, hairdressers, and keepers of the wardrobe of the Emperor and the Empress.
• A printer of the chamber and an introducer of ambassadors.

The statutes of the Order of Guadalupe were drawn up so that Iturbide could confer this distinction, as well as military ranks and promotions. Among the appointments were:

• The Marquis of Aguayo as lord high steward.
• The Count of Regla as master of the horse.
• The Marquis of Salvatierra as Captain of the guard.
• The Count of Rul and the sons of the Count of Agreda as stewards of the week.

Because of the meager resources of the treasury, it was necessary to borrow jewels for the crowns of the emperor and the empress.

July 21, 1822, was the day of the coronation. From early morning, salvos from twenty-four cannon rang out. Balconies were adorned, and the facades of public buildings were decorated, as were the atriums and porticoes of churches. In the Metropolitan Cathedral two thrones were placed, the main one next to the presbytery and the lesser one near the choir. Shortly before nine in the morning, the members of the Congress and of the Ayuntamiento took their assigned places. Cavalry and infantry troops lined the route of the future emperor and his retinue.

Three bishops officiated at the Mass. The President of the Congress, Rafael Mangino y Mendívil, was charged with placing the crown on Agustín I. The emperor himself then placed the crown on the Empress. Other insignia were placed on the newly crowned sovereigns by the generals and ladies of honor. Bishop Juan Cruz Ruiz de Cabañas y Crespo exclaimed Vivat Imperator in aeternum!, "Long live the emperor and the empress!" When the ceremony ended, the ringing of the bells and the thunder of the cannon announced to the people that the coronation had been accomplished.

First months

Throne of Agustín de Iturbide in the National Museum of Interventions

The empire faced republican opposition and the resistance of the Spanish garrison of San Juan de Ulúa. Iturbide, assisted by his Council of State, began an open struggle against the Congress. His first proposal was to reduce the number of deputies, in order to rid himself of some of his enemies and thus try to neutralize them.

After the coronation, commercial and mining activity declined until confidence was restored once again. Some wealthy peninsular Spaniards, fearing for their safety, preferred to leave the empire. The supporters of the Plan of Iguala, feeling betrayed, swelled the ranks of the Scottish Masonic lodge, which made its influence felt in politics.

The Brigadier of Nuevo Santander, Felipe de la Garza, on learning that the Treaties of Córdoba had been broken, proposed to the Congress the adoption of a republican government. He offered a cavalry force of 2,000 men. The minister plenipotentiary of Colombia, Miguel Santa María, encouraged the deputies to follow the republican policy that his own country had adopted. Through agents he had placed in the lodges and in opposition circles, Iturbide learned of the situation. The Emperor issued Santa María his passports. On August 26 he ordered the arrest of deputies José Joaquín Herrera, Lombardo, Teresa de Mier, Fagoaga, Echarte, Tarrazo, Obregón, Tagle, Echenique, Anaya, Iturribarría, Zebadua, Zercero, Mayorga and others. The Congress protested immediately. Iturbide justified himself by stating that, as empowered by the Spanish Constitution, he had arrested those involved on grounds of conspiracy. He asked for calm and requested that the decision of the courts be awaited.

Iturbide dissolved the National Congress under his regime.

On August 27, General De la Garza sent a letter addressed to the emperor supporting the protests of the Congress. It was signed by the Ayuntamiento of Soto la Marina, the electors and members of the provincial Deputation, the parish priest, and officers of Nuevo Santander. Iturbide regarded the letter as an uprising. He ordered Brigadier Zenón Fernández to go to the area and defeat De la Garza, and then command of the Huasteca region was conferred on Colonel Manuel Gómez Pedraza. De la Garza was taken prisoner in Soto la Marina.

In Mexico City, the deputies accused of conspiracy remained in prison. On September 27, Lorenzo de Zavala proposed before the full house that the Congress be reformed. He argued that the provinces were unequally represented and that the number of deputies needed to be reduced, concluding that a new call for elections was required. The proposal, however, was rejected.

On October 31, Iturbide issued a decree dissolving the Constituent Assembly, on the grounds that he considered its work "utopian." General Luis Cortázar y Rábago was charged with announcing the decree to the President of the Congress, Mariano Marín, and he gave half an hour to vacate the premises. With the support of forty-five deputies, among them Lorenzo de Zavala, and eight alternates, a National Instituting Junta was created to achieve political and economic stability. To accomplish these objectives, the Junta was to devise a method for designating the members of a new Congress. It was also to create a Finance Commission, which was placed in the charge of Mariano Larraguibel.

Ana María Huarte, Empress consort of Mexico, portrait by Josephus Arias Huerta.

Once the Junta was installed, two pending matters had to be resolved: the hostilities on the part of Francisco Lemaur, who had replaced García Dávila as commander at San Juan de Ulúa, and the review of the imperial treasury. A loan was negotiated in London, but it never arrived, and another with Diego Berry also failed to materialize. Given the difficult financial situation of the treasury, a loan of 2,800,000 pesos was imposed, secured by a general contribution from all the inhabitants of the empire.

The Spaniards who wished to emigrate were forbidden to take money out of the country, and were allowed to travel only with their clothing and necessary furniture. Other measures included the restriction of freedom of the press and penalties against conspirators. It was also determined that a budget of 20,000,000 pesos was not feasible, of which 1,500,000 were needed for the expenses of the royal revenue. An attempt was made to cover the deficit through the proceeds of the tobacco revenue and the collection of four reales from every individual of both sexes between fourteen and sixty years of age.

To make up for the lack of resources, and invoking public faith as his safeguard, Iturbide took funds from a conducta (convoy) of privately owned silver, amounting to 1,297,200 pesos, which was deposited in Perote and Jalapa. This action provoked the discontent of the merchants. Unbacked paper money was issued, and on December 31, 1822, the Gaceta Imperial de México published the authorization to print up to 4,000,000 pesos. Another of Iturbide's measures was the authorization issued to Stephen Austin on January 3, 1823, to colonize Texas.

Plan of Casa Mata

Iturbide Emperador, attributed to Josephus Arias Huerta.

Main article: Revolution of the Plan of Casa Mata

From the time he joined the Plan of Iguala, Antonio López de Santa Anna maintained a close relationship with Iturbide, who appointed him military governor of Veracruz. The two kept up communication and a personal friendship through correspondence for more than a year. In October 1822, Santa Anna, with no fleet and no heavy artillery, attempted to take the fortress of San Juan de Ulúa. Because the project was of special interest, Iturbide ordered General José Antonio de Echávarri to oversee the operations. The whole affair, however, was a reckless cadet's escapade, and the plan failed.

On November 16, Iturbide traveled to Xalapa on the pretext of taking the necessary precautions for the capture of San Juan de Ulúa. In reality he wanted to remove Santa Anna from his post and bring him to Mexico City. During those days the Empress had given birth to a new prince, and the Emperor returned to celebrate the event. He nonetheless required Santa Anna's presence in Mexico City, but Santa Anna refused to go.

According to the chronicle of Carlos María Bustamante, Santa Anna's manifesto was drawn up by the minister plenipotentiary Miguel Santa María, who was about to sail for Gran Colombia. Santa María had corresponded with Joel R. Poinsett, asking him to intercede so that the government of Iturbide would not be recognized in Washington, D.C.

The man who had been, for Santa Anna, the "most beloved general" and the "most worthy and particularly beloved emperor" became "the most unjust despot," one "who instead of being the liberator, had become a tyrant." On December 2, Santa Anna issued a proclamation to the population of Veracruz. Among its statements were the following:

1) When the country was emancipated, the aim was to seek a government founded on the principles of equality, justice and reason.

2) From the beginning Mexico chose representative government, through the Congress that has succumbed to force.

3) In the name of the nation, the Republic is consequently proclaimed, under the conditions to be determined by a representative assembly of the nation.

The Emperor's response was immediate. He dispatched Generals José Antonio de Echávarri, José María Lobato and Luis Cortázar to put down the uprising. On December 3, Santa Anna issued a new manifesto, this time addressed to the Great Mexican Nation. In the document he protested against the dissolution of the Congress, the violation of the inviolability of the deputies, and the seizure of privately owned property. He argued that these acts broke the oath the emperor himself had taken.

Disconcerted by the republican proclamations and the agitation in Veracruz, Francisco Lemaur established communication with Santa Anna. Seeking to protect the fortress of San Juan de Ulúa, he declared his opposition to tyranny. Santa Anna met with Lemaur and agreed to an armistice of mutual convenience. Echávarri and Lobato regarded this act as treason to the nation.

Antonio López de Santa Anna, creator of the Plan of Casa Mata.

On December 6, 1822, Guadalupe Victoria came out of his hiding place to support the movement. Knowing the prestige and popularity of the former insurgent, Santa Anna chose to hand him the leadership. Together they proclaimed the Plan of Veracruz. It consisted of seventeen principal articles and twenty-two additional ones. Among its most important proposals were:

• The exclusivity of the Catholic religion.
• The preservation of independence.
• The vesting of sovereignty in the Congress.
• A declaration that Iturbide's imperial investiture was null, because he had forced the will of the Congress.
• The continued validity of the Spanish Constitution until the Congress drafted a new one.

On December 9, Iturbide realized the danger posed by a possible alliance between the rebels and Lemaur's Spaniards. The next day, Santa Anna proposed to Echávarri that he join the republican movement. The Emperor's favored general refused and made his answer public on December 16. In it he rebuked the rebel as a false republican, unmasking his veiled intention of taking revenge on the Emperor, who had removed him from command of the province.

On December 21, Santa Anna advanced toward Xalapa but was defeated by General Calderón. Forced to fall back, on December 24 he joined a group of 300 of Guadalupe Victoria's men at Puente del Rey and resumed command of the rebellion. Echávarri received reinforcements to besiege the rebels, raising his military strength to 3,000 soldiers. He nevertheless delayed the start of the attack, probably because of talks initiated through the Scottish lodge.

On December 26, unconcerned in the capital, Iturbide took part in the baptism of his son Felipe de Jesús Andrés María de Guadalupe, a ceremony performed by the Bishop of Puebla. Meanwhile, Santa Anna once again took advantage of Guadalupe Victoria's popularity, haranguing the population to swell his ranks. In the first days of January he again named Victoria General-in-chief of the movement.

On January 5, 1823, the former insurgents Vicente Guerrero and Nicolás Bravo moved to Chilapa in the southern mountains with the intention of rising up. Iturbide sent Epitacio Sánchez and Gabriel de Armijo in pursuit of them. On January 13, 1823, the Battle of Almolonga took place on the southern front. The rebel forces were defeated and Guerrero was seriously wounded, but Epitacio Sánchez died in the fighting. Despite the success of the imperial forces, the insurrection spread unstoppably toward the region of Oaxaca.

As late as January 22, Santa Anna reported to Guadalupe Victoria that he had been attacked from all four points of the compass by the imperial forces. A radical turn came, however, when Generals Echávarri, Lobato and Cortázar signed the Plan of Casa Mata on February 1, 1823. Accounts of the reason for this change of ideology differ:

• According to Lucas Alamán, it was due to the influence of the Masonic lodges.
• According to Santa Anna, it was due to Lemaur's support.
• According to the analysis of Nettie L. Benson, "fundamental work had already been prepared," probably behind the scenes, by Miguel Ramos Arizpe and José Mariano de Michelena.

Abdication

The Plan of Casa Mata consisted of eleven articles. Its main provisions were:

• The formation of a new Congress, in which the former deputies could be reelected or replaced.
• The circulation of a copy of the plan to every army commander.
• The exercise of administrative control of the provinces by the provincial deputations.
• A prohibition on any attempt against the person of the Emperor.

The document was sent to all the provinces and was adopted with great speed. Iturbide's enemies and friends alike agreed with the proposal in the plan to elect new members of the Congress.

After Iturbide's abdication, each deputation assumed administrative and political jurisdiction over its area, establishing a de facto federal system and weakening the central power. During those days the Comanche Captain Guonique and a chief of the Cherokee tribe had arrived in Mexico City to conclude peace treaties with the empire, since their peoples had been forced out of the territory of the United States. Guonique pledged to contribute 20,000 men in support of Iturbide, but it all turned out to be a hoax.

On March 4, Iturbide issued a decree restoring the Congress, and three days later the deputies assembled. The Emperor attended the first meeting and delivered a speech in which he declared his intention to comply with the general will. He recommended that the Congress choose whatever place it deemed suitable for its seat, and that it provide resources for the troops that had joined the uprising. He concluded by urging the advisability of an amnesty to forget past grievances and errors.

On March 19, 1823, the Secretary of Justice, Juan Gómez Navarrete, communicated Iturbide's abdication by means of a letter:

The sovereign Congress having been recognized by the Junta and the troops adhering to the Plan or Act of Casa Mata, the reason for which I kept forces in the vicinity of the capital has ceased. I accepted the crown with the greatest reluctance, only to serve the fatherland; but from the moment I glimpsed that keeping it might serve, if not as a cause, at least as a pretext for civil war, I resolved to give it up.

I did not abdicate it, because there was no generally recognized national representation [...] there is now such recognition, and I therefore make my absolute abdication.

My presence in the country would always be a pretext for discord, and plans would be attributed to me that I never thought of. And to avoid even the most remote suspicion, I will gladly go into exile and betake myself to a foreign nation. I shall ask the Congress only that the nation pay the debts I have contracted with private friends, which are not of great importance; for although the Congress itself left it to my discretion to take for myself what I needed, and the Junta granted me an allowance, I could make use of neither when the needs of the troops, employees and public officials touched my heart.

— Letter of abdication of Agustín de Iturbide.

On March 26, a council of war was held in which the Marquis of Vivanco, Echávarri, Bravo, Barragán and other officers took part. It was decided that Iturbide should leave with his family, escorted by General Nicolás Bravo, as the former emperor himself had requested. Even after the abdication, there were clashes among the population when the so-called Liberating Army entered Mexico City. It was met at the hermitage of San Antonio by armed groups and the populace. But it was all in vain: Friar Aguilar, who led one group, had to take refuge in the convent of La Merced, and Sergeant Pío Marcha was arrested at the Salto del Agua.

The Congress met and entrusted the Executive Power to a triumvirate. Generals Pedro Celestino Negrete, Nicolás Bravo, Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria took turns serving in it, with Miguel Domínguez and Mariano Michelena as alternates. On April 7, 1823, the Congress declared the coronation of Agustín de Iturbide to have been an act of violence and force, and null in law. The Congress also declared that there had never been any right to oblige the Mexican nation to submit to any law or treaty. It consequently regarded the Plan of Iguala and the Treaties of Córdoba as no longer in force, leaving the nation entirely free to constitute itself under whatever form of government best suited it.

Vicente Filisola was notified of the proclamation of the Plan of Casa Mata. On March 29 he convened a meeting in the city of Guatemala. On June 24 the local Congress voted for separation from Mexico. The exception was the province of Chiapas, which preferred to remain united. On July 1, 1823, the so-called United Provinces of Central America was constituted.

Exile

Manifesto of Agustín de Iturbide to the world (Livorno Manifesto)

The Congress granted Iturbide an annual pension of twenty-five thousand pesos, on the condition that he take up residence somewhere in Italy. His family would also be entitled to whatever pension the laws might designate in the event of the former emperor's death. On May 9, Iturbide reached the mouth of the La Antigua River in Veracruz, and Guadalupe Victoria came to see him off. As a token of gratitude and recognition, the former emperor wished to give him a watch. The former insurgent would not accept it and gave him in exchange a silk handkerchief, which Iturbide kept until his death. On May 11, 1823, Iturbide, accompanied by his wife, eight children and nineteen servants, embarked on the English frigate Rowllins bound for Europe. He also requested protection, fearing an attack by a pirate ship or a Spanish ship.

The Congress invited the minister plenipotentiary of Colombia, Miguel Santa María, to return, even though he had been named as the author of the Plan of Veracruz. It also ordered the removal of the crown from the eagle on the national coat of arms, declared null the appointment of the justices of the Supreme Court of Justice, and withdrew Iturbide's paper money from circulation. A decree was issued declaring good and meritorious the services rendered to the fatherland during the first eleven years of the war of independence by Miguel Hidalgo, Ignacio Allende, Juan Aldama, Mariano Abasolo, José María Morelos, Mariano Matamoros, Miguel Bravo, Hermenegildo Galeana, Xavier Mina, Pedro Moreno and Víctor Rosales.

Republican and Iturbidist demonstrations

Main articles: Guadalajara Rebellion (1823), Oaxaca Rebellion (1823), and Puebla Rebellion (1823)

The provinces of Guanajuato, Michoacán, San Luis Potosí, Zacatecas and Oaxaca sent commissioners in response to the call for a Congress, but their petitions turned into demands. Texas, Coahuila, Nuevo León and Tamaulipas sought to separate in order to form an independent State. On May 12, in Guadalajara, there was an uprising of the popular masses that made evident the disagreement among the population, with acclamations and shouts of "Long live Agustín I!" In Sonora, Friar Bernardo del Espíritu Santo, a purely ecclesiastical authority, condemned the Plan of Casa Mata. In addition to the division among Iturbidists, Bourbonists and republicans, a struggle began between centralists and federalists, who took separatist positions.

A year later, a pronouncement against the designs of the national Congress, in which supporters of Iturbide took part, was led in Guadalajara by Luis Quintanar and Anastasio Bustamante. Nicolás Bravo and Pedro Celestino Negrete went to the area to occupy the city and negotiate the emancipation. In Tepic, the Baron of Rossenberg and Eduardo García, a relative of the former emperor himself, openly declared themselves in favor of Iturbide and were subdued by Colonel Luis Correa. Once they had been defeated, their execution by firing squad was ordered. Demonstrations in favor of Iturbide then arose, as in Mexico City. There twenty-five conspirators were arrested when papers, plans and a document they intended to send to London were found on them. Among them were deputy José Antonio Andrade and Colonel Reyes Veramendi.

Iturbide arrived in Livorno on August 2, 1823. He stayed at the country house of Pauline Bonaparte and tried to move to Rome, but he was not permitted to do so. He also met with the former consul of Spain, Mariano Torrente, who showed interest in learning the former emperor's story. For his part, Iturbide wrote his Manifesto to the World in Livorno, Tuscany. Also known as the Livorno Manifesto, it was dated September 27, 1823, but he was unable to publish it.

Because of persecution and harassment, he traveled through Switzerland, the banks of the Rhine and Belgium until he reached Ostend. He then crossed the English Channel to reach London, where he settled on January 1, 1824. With the help of a friend of his named Quin, he was able to publish his Manifesto. Iturbide's movements were watched and reported by Father José María Marchena, a Mexican spy, who kept the Minister of Interior and Foreign Relations, Lucas Alamán, punctually informed. During his stay in London, the former emperor received letters from Mexico in which his supporters encouraged him to return.

On February 13, Iturbide sent a message addressed to the Congress, in which he gave notice of his departure from Italy and of his wish and readiness to offer his services to the government of Mexico. He considered that the independence of the nation was in danger because of the efforts Spain was making, with the help of the Holy Alliance, to reconquer the American territories.

From March 1824, the Iturbidist uprisings were mentioned and discussed during the sessions of the Mexican Congress. On April 3, by sixty-six votes to two, Agustín de Iturbide was declared a traitor should he appear at any point in Mexican territory under any title. The same applied to anyone who cooperated in favoring his return. On April 22, it was ruled that if Iturbide set foot on Mexican soil he would be declared a traitor and enemy of the State, and for that reason anyone could put him to death. On April 28, the ruling was ratified and extended to those who assisted his return.

Capture and death

Iturbide a prisoner at the hacienda of Palo Alto, jurisdiction of Santillana, Nuevo Santander, on July 18, 1824.

On May 4, 1824, Iturbide embarked on the English brig Spring. He was accompanied by his wife and two of his younger children, as well as Ramón Malo, Father José López, Father José Treviño, the Italian Macario Morandini, and the English printer John Armstrong. Also with him was the Polish Colonel Carlos Beneski, who had taken part in the Mexican campaigns. He carried with him a printing press, personal documents, and a manifesto he intended to address to the people of Mexico.

On July 14, the vessel anchored at the bar of Soto la Marina. Beneski went ashore to present himself to the military commander, Felipe de la Garza. He showed him a letter from Father Treviño recommending him for the purpose of proposing a project of Irish colonization to the Mexican government. De la Garza asked about Iturbide, and the Pole answered that the former emperor was in London with his family. On that basis the landing was authorized.

Execution of Agustín de Iturbide, located in the 19th Century Hall of the National Museum of History, Chapultepec Castle, Mexico.

On July 15, Iturbide rode through Soto la Marina in Beneski's company and was recognized by Lieutenant Colonel Juan Manuel Azúnzolo and the mayor. With the suspicion confirmed, on the 16th Corporal Jorge Espino arrested the travelers at a place called Los Arroyos. De la Garza interviewed both of them. Iturbide explained that he had come to Mexico to offer his services to the fatherland. The commander informed him that he was outside the law under the decree issued by the Congress on April 28. He also reproached Beneski for the deception, and Beneski answered that he was a soldier and had acted in accordance with the orders he had received.

Transfer of the remains of Agustín de Iturbide to the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral, in 1838.

De la Garza took Iturbide to Padilla, where the local Congress of the newly created state of Tamaulipas was in session. The governor was Bernardo Gutiérrez de Lara, who had sympathized with Hidalgo and Morelos and had led a group of insurgents in the region of Texas. In his defense, Iturbide argued that an invasion was being prepared with the help of the Holy Alliance, but no one believed him. The local Congress ordered that the federal decree be carried out.

On July 19, 1824, Iturbide was executed by firing squad in Padilla, Tamaulipas. His last words were:

Mexicans! In the very act of my death, I commend to you love of the fatherland and observance of our holy religion; it is what shall lead you to glory. I die for having come to help you, and I die gladly, because I die among you: I die with honor, not as a traitor: this stain shall not remain upon my children and their posterity: I am no traitor, no.

Mortal remains, legacy and honors

Display of the mortal remains of the Emperor and General Agustín de Iturbide in the Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City, on the occasion of the celebrations of the Bicentennial of the Independence of Mexico, in 2010.

In 1838, under the presidency of Anastasio Bustamante, Iturbide's mortal remains were moved to Mexico City and buried with honors in the Chapel of San Felipe de Jesús in the Metropolitan Cathedral. They remain there to this day, displayed in a glass urn.

His name, associated with the national flag, was long preserved in a stanza of the original lyrics of the National Anthem of Mexico, written in 1854. The stanza was removed in 1943:

Seventh stanza of the Mexican National Anthem:

If to the fray against an enemy host the warlike trumpet calls us, follow, valiant Mexicans, the sacred flag of Iturbide.

And may the vanquished ensigns serve as a carpet for the fierce steeds; may the laurels of triumph shade the brow of the brave leader.

Manifesto to the World by Agustín de Iturbide:

The Congress of Mexico sought to erect statues to the leaders of the insurrection and to pay honors to their funeral ashes.

These same leaders I had pursued, and would pursue again if we went back to those times.

Saber of Agustín de Iturbide, used on September 27, 1821.

Paradoxically, the saber that Iturbide used during the entry parade of the Trigarante Army into Mexico City was placed in the hall of the Congress, alongside the names, written in letters of gold, of the insurgents he had fought. Its display reads as follows:

On the throat and first ring one reads: "General Anastasio Bustamante, faithful friend and collaborator of the Hero of Yguala, dedicates to the Mexican Congress this saber, being the same one that the immortal Yturbide used in the Campaign of seven months in which the liberty of the Fatherland was achieved. Year 1839." And on the second ring: "It is not of Gold, but its value is immense. Mexican Yndependence." National Museum of Interventions

Descendants

Main article: House of Iturbide

With his wife, Ana María Huarte, he had ten children:

• Agustín Jerónimo, Imperial Prince of Mexico (September 30, 1807 – December 11, 1866). He fought alongside the liberator Simón Bolívar and became his aide-de-camp. He never married nor had children.
• Sabina de Iturbide, Mexican Princess (December 30, 1810 – July 14, 1871). She never married and took the habit of a nun.
• Juana María de Iturbide, Mexican Princess (March 8, 1812 – October 2, 1828). She never married and took the habit of a nun, calling herself Sister Margarita de Jesús, María y José.
• Princess Josefa de Iturbide, Mexican Princess (December 22, 1814 – December 5, 1891). She never married. She was a friend and lady of the court of Empress Carlota of Mexico. She was the longest-lived of her siblings and the last of them to die.
• Ángel de Iturbide, Mexican Prince (October 2, 1816 – July 21, 1872). He married Alice Green, an American citizen, and had descendants.
• María de Jesús de Iturbide, Mexican Princess (February 21, 1818 – July 10, 1849). She never married and took the habit of a nun in exile in the United States. She called herself "María Isis".
• María de los Dolores de Iturbide, died in infancy (1819 – July 10, 1820).
• Salvador de Iturbide y Huarte, Mexican Prince (July 16, 1820 – June 7, 1856). He married Rosario Marzán, and they had descendants.
• Felipe de Iturbide, Mexican Prince (November 30, 1822 – November 19, 1853). He was the only one of the children of the Emperors of Mexico who was born a prince.
• Agustín Cosme de Iturbide (October 1824 – May 10, 1873). His mother was pregnant with him when his father was executed by firing squad. He was born in New Orleans and became a military officer. He never married.

Distinctions

• Grand Master of the Order of Guadalupe.
• Cross of Independence.

Ancestry

Generation 1

• 1. Agustín I, Emperor of Mexico

Generation 2 (parents)

• 2. José Joaquín de Iturbide y Arregui, Prince of the Union
• 3. María Josefa Arambúru y Carrillo de Figueroa

Generation 3 (grandparents)

• 4. José de Iturbide y Álvarez de Eulate
• 5. María Josefa Arregui y Gaztelu
• 6. Sebastián Arambúru y Urdizibar
• 7. Nicolasa Carrillo de Figueroa y Villaseñor

Generation 4 (great-grandparents)

• 8. José Salvador de Iturbide e Irigaray
• 9. Magdalena Álvarez de Eulate y Vicuña
• 10. José Arregui Chocarro
• 11. Josefa Gaztelu Esnar
• 12. Martín Pérez Arambúru Olaciregui
• 13. Teresa Udizibar
• 14. José Joaquín Carrillo de Figueroa Villaseñor
• 15. Ana Rosa Méndez de Villaseñor

Generation 5 (great-great-grandparents)

• 16. José Iturbide Mendiondo
• 17. Antonia Irigaray Orduña
• 18. Pedro Alvarez de Eulate Sagredo
• 19. Josefa Viguña Pérez
• 20. Juan Arregui Arqui
• 21. Josefa Chocarro Marco
• 22. José Gaztelu
• 23. Benita Esnar
• 24. Joanes Arambúru
• 25. Mariana Olaciregui
• 28. José Carrillo de Figueroa Dávalos
• 29. María Villaseñor-Cervantes Cueva

See also

• Political crisis of 1808 in Mexico
• Independence of Mexico
• Constituent Congress of Mexico of 1822
• Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States of 1824
• Emperor of Mexico
• First Mexican Empire

Bibliography

• AGUILAR OCHOA, Arturo (2001). La fotografía durante el imperio de Maximiliano (in español). México: Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. ISBN 978-968-36-4505-0. Retrieved April 19, 2010.
• ARIAS, Juan de Dios; OLAVARRÍA Y FERRARI, Enrique de (1880). "México independiente". In Vicente Riva Palacio (ed.). México a través de los siglos (in español). Vol. IV. México: Ballescá y compañía. Retrieved March 25, 2010.
• FERRER MUÑOZ, Manuel (1995). La formación de un Estado nacional. El imperio y la república federal (1821-1835) (PDF) (in español). Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. ISBN 968-36-4746-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 12, 2007. Retrieved April 18, 2010.
• FRASQUET MIGUEL, Ivana (2009). "Una vieja constitución para una nueva nación. México y su "Trienio Liberal"". In Enrique Márquez (ed.). La Ciudad de México y Cádiz, 1810-1823. En busca de la soberanía constitucional (in español) (20/10 Memoria de las revoluciones en México ed.). México: RGM Medios. ISBN 978-607-7748-04-5. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
• GONZÁLEZ PEDRERO, Enrique (2005). País de un solo hombre: el México de Santa Anna. Volumen 1. La ronda de los contrarios (in español). México: Fondo de Cultura Económica. ISBN 968-16-3962-6. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
• Guerrero Flores, David; Ruiz Ham, Emma Paul (2012). El país en formación. Cronología (1821-1854) (PDF) (in español) (1st ed.). Instituto Nacional de Estudios Históricos de las Revoluciones de México. ISBN 978-607-7916-68-0. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
• MONTEREY, Francisco J. (1996). Historia de El Salvador Anotaciones Cronológicas 1810-1842 (in español) (Third ed.). Editorial Universitaria. Retrieved June 15, 2010.
• MUÑOZ SALDAÑA, Rafael (2009). México independiente. El despertar de una nación (in español). México: Editorial Televisa Internacional. ISBN 978-968-5963-25-1. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
• LEÓN ALANIS, Ricardo (2000). Historiografía michoacana: acercamientos y balances (in español). Morelia: Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas. ISBN 978-970-70-3026-8. Retrieved April 19, 2010.
• OLANO GARCÍA, Hernán Alejandro (2006). La constitución monárquica de Cundinamarca (in español). Ediciones Academia Colombiana de Jurisprudencia. Retrieved April 19, 2010.
• VÁZQUEZ, Josefina Zoraida (2009). "Los primeros tropiezos". In Daniel Cosío Villegas (ed.). Historia general de México (in español). México: El Colegio de México. pp. 525-582. ISBN 968-12-0969-9. Retrieved March 26, 2010.
• VILLORO, Luis (2009). "La revolución de independencia". In Daniel Cosío Villegas (ed.). Historia general de México (in español). México: El Colegio de México. pp. 489-523. ISBN 968-12-0969-9. Retrieved March 26, 2010.
• ZÁRATE, Julio (1880). "La Guerra de Independencia". In Vicente Riva Palacio (ed.). México a través de los siglos (in español). Vol. III. México: Ballescá y compañía. Retrieved March 25, 2010.

External links

• El camino hacia la Libertad, on the website of the Instituto Napoleónico México-Francia.
• Espinosa de los Monteros Hernández, Roberto. "Agustín de Iturbide: el trágico destino de un libertador" (in español). México 2010, Gobierno Federal. Archived from the original on April 20, 2010. Retrieved April 18, 2010.
• López, Chantal; Cortés, Omar. "Manifiesto al mundo de Agustín de Iturbide" (in español). Antorcha.net. Archived from the original on June 18, 2010. Retrieved April 18, 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Zárate Toscano, Verónica. "Las pervivencias de Iturbide en el México de hoy" (in español). Instituto Mora. Retrieved April 19, 2010.