Ignatius of Loyola

From Hispanopedia
Saint

Ignatius of Loyola
Saint Ignatius of Loyola (1620–1622) by Peter Paul Rubens, Norton Simon Museum, Pasadena.
The painter depicted the saint with a book in which the Jesuit motto can be read: Ad maiorem Dei gloriam.
BornÍñigo López de Loyola[1]
Íñigo López de Recalde[2]
1491
Azpeitia, Gipuzkoa, Crown of Castile
DiedJuly 31, 1556
(aged 65)
Rome, Papal States
Venerated inCatholic Church
BeatifiedJuly 27, 1609 by Paul V
CanonizedMarch 12, 1622 by Gregory XV
FeastJuly 31
PatronageGipuzkoa and Biscay, Society of Jesus, Spiritual Exercises, soldiers, Junín (Argentina), Antwerp (Belgium)

Ignatius of Loyola (Loyola, 1491 – Rome, July 31, 1556)[3] was a Spanish soldier and priest, founder of the Society of Jesus, of which he was the first General. In this order the usual vows of poverty, chastity and obedience are professed, in addition to a special vow of obedience to the Pope.[4] The Society of Jesus played an important role during the Counter-Reformation.

Pope Gregory XV canonized him on March 12, 1622, together with Francis Xavier, Philip Neri, Teresa of Jesus and Isidore the Laborer.[5] Pius XI declared him patron of spiritual exercises in 1922.[6] The Methodist Jesse Lyman Hurlbut considered Ignatius of Loyola one of the most notable and influential personalities of the 16th century.[7]

Vera effigies S. Ignaty de Loyola, true image of St. Ignatius, in military armor. Anonymous, 16th century, French school.

In May 1521, while he was a gentleman of the household of the Viceroy of Navarre, he was wounded in combat at the Battle of Pamplona against a contingent of Navarrese and French who supported the reign of Henry II of Navarre.[8][9] This event would be decisive in his life, since reading religious books during his convalescence would lead him to deepen his Catholic faith and to the imitation of the saints.

So, once he had recovered, he resolved to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, for which he first needed to reach Rome. On his way he stopped at Montserrat and Manresa, where he began to develop his Spiritual Exercises, the basis of Ignatian spirituality.[5]

On his return from the Holy Land, he began his studies and devoted himself to preaching, based on the method of his spiritual exercises. He was tried in Alcalá de Henares and in Salamanca and was forbidden to preach until he had studied for four years.[10] He decided to continue his studies in Paris, where he studied humanities, philosophy and a year and a half of theology. In Paris, Peter Faber and Francis Xavier, among others, decided to follow him.[5]

Ignatius and his companions ended up making a vow at Montmartre to live in poverty, help their neighbor and make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem or, if that were not possible, place themselves at the disposal of the Pope. Because of the war against the Ottomans it was impossible to embark for the Holy Land. Ignatius set out for Rome together with Peter Faber and Diego Laínez, experiencing throughout the whole journey a multitude of spiritual feelings and a special confidence that God would be favorable to them in that city.[5]

There he devoted himself to giving his spiritual exercises, but he soon suffered the criticism of influential figures who spread rumors against him, accusing him of being a fugitive from the Inquisition. To prevent the accusations from prospering and ending up preventing his activity, Ignatius wanted a formal trial to be opened so that he could be publicly declared innocent. This trial was resolved in his favor.[5]

In November 1538 Ignatius and his companions placed themselves at the disposal of the Pope.[11]

In 1541 the first General of the Society of Jesus was designated, and Ignatius was elected unanimously by his companions. However, he rejected the designation and asked that the vote be repeated after deeper reflection. He was elected again in a second vote and, after reflecting and confessing his sins, he finally accepted.[5]

He spent fifteen years at the head of the Society of Jesus as General, remaining in Rome. The Society prospered to the point that, at the time of his death, it had more than a thousand members in more than one hundred houses—most of them colleges and houses of formation—distributed across twelve provinces.[6] His Spiritual Exercises, published in 1548, exercised a proverbial influence on later spirituality as a tool for discernment.[12] He died on July 31, 1556, and his body, which was initially buried in the church of Santa Maria della Strada, was moved to the Church of the Gesù, seat of the Society.

Name

According to the Jesuit biographers Cándido de Dalmases Jordana and Albert Longchamp, his full name was Íñigo López de Loyola.[1][13][14][15] He was given the name of the abbot Saint Íñigo, which corresponds to the name of pre-Roman origin Enneco.[16][17]

In a trial of 1515 he is called both Íñigo and Eneco.[16]

In Basque he has been called "Eneko de Loiola".[18]

At times the name has appeared in Latin as "Enecus".[18]

He used to sign with the formula "De bondad pobre, Ynigo" ("Poor in goodness, Ynigo"), since "y" and "n" were common spellings in place of "i" and "ñ" until the 17th century.[17][19]

The first time he appears named with the Latin name Ignatius ("Ignacio" in Castilian and "Iñaki" in Basque)[18] is in 1531, in the list of students of the rector of the University of Paris.[20] Ignatius also appears on the diploma[20] of master in the liberal arts[21] issued by the university on March 14, 1534.[22] He did not explain the reasons for the change, although he was devoted to Saint Ignatius of Antioch.[23] According to a 16th-century biographer, Pedro de Ribadeneira, "he took the name Ignatius because it was more universal" or "more common to the other nations".[14]

In the 1540s he still signed some writings in Castilian with the formula "De bondad pobre, Ynigo",[17] such as the letter he wrote to the nun Teresa Rejadella in 1543[24] or the message to Friar Barberá in 1546.[25]

Biography

There are two 16th-century biographies of Saint Ignatius of Loyola:

  • The Pilgrim's Account (El Relato del Peregrino) (one part in Castilian and another in Italian, 1553–1555), which is an autobiography taken down by the Jesuit Luís Gonçalves da Câmara (available on Wikisource). The writer Federico Ortés considers that the text was hidden by the Jesuits from 1565 onward.[26] In 1731 the Bollandists published an edition in Latin. In 1904 an edition based on the original, in Spanish and Italian, was published. In 1942 it was published again. In 1973 a new edition was disseminated more widely.[27]
  • The Life of Ignatius of Loyola (La Vida de Ignacio de Loyola) (in Latin 1572, in Castilian 1583) by the Jesuit Pedro de Ribadeneira. There were editions revised by the author in 1584, 1586, 1594, 1595 and 1605. After that it was not published again until 1863.[27]

Family background

His father, Beltrán Ibáñez (or Yáñez) de Oñaz, lord of the House of Loyola of Azpeitia, was born around 1439. He signed his marriage contract at Loyola on July 13, 1467, with Marina Sánchez de Licona.[28][29]

Marina was born in Ondarroa. Some historians state that she was born in Azcoitia, but according to Cándido de Dalmases this is not possible, since Marina's father, Martín García de Licona, bought the house of Balda in that place in 1459.[30] Marina's mother, according to witnesses in 1561, was María de Zarauz.[31]

According to Ribadeneira, the couple had eight sons and five daughters. According to preserved documentation, the sons were named Juan Pérez, Martín García, Beltrán, Ochoa Pérez, Hernando, Pero López and Íñigo López, while the daughters were named Juana, Magdalena, Petronila and Sancha Ibáñez.[32]

Pero López was a churchman in Azpeitia. The firstborn, Juan Pérez, died in the war in Naples in 1496.[32]

Íñigo (Saint Ignatius) was the couple's last child and must have been born in 1491, probably on June 1,[33] although his baptismal record has not been preserved.[34]

His father made his will on October 23, 1507. This document has been lost, but it is known that he left his eldest son, Martín García, as universal heir.[29]

Youth

The Chief Treasurer (contador mayor) of the Exchequer of Castile, the hidalgo Juan Velázquez de Cuéllar, asked the lord of Loyola to send one of his sons to Arévalo so that he could keep him in his house as his own. María de Velasco, wife of the Chief Treasurer of Castile, was a relative of Saint Ignatius's mother, and it is possible that there was a close friendship between the two families before this request.[35][36]

The date of Saint Ignatius's move to Arévalo is unknown. The Jesuit historian Fidel Fita says that it took place in 1496, but Cándido de Dalmases places it later, between 1504 and 1507.[37]

Juan Velázquez de Cuéllar was Chief Treasurer from 1495 and a member of the Royal Council from 1497. His house was in Arévalo, but he was obliged to follow the itinerant Court of the Catholic Monarchs.[38]

Juan Velázquez was executor of the wills of the monarchs Isabella and Ferdinand. When Isabella the Catholic died in 1504, numerous objects that had belonged to the sovereign passed through the Chief Treasurer's house in Arévalo and were sold. Among these objects were religious books, some of which were acquired by María de Velasco. In this way, Saint Ignatius may have had access to books that had belonged to Isabella.[39]

Ferdinand the Catholic married secondly Germaine of Foix. María de Velasco served Germaine and they were intimate friends.[40]

According to Ribadeneira, Saint Ignatius was a very good scribe and perfected his handwriting in Arévalo. According to Juan Alfonso de Polanco, during this time Saint Ignatius wrote a poem to the Apostle Saint Peter.[41]

He also struck up a friendship with Alonso de Montalvo, a page of the Chief Treasurer who would become a very wealthy nobleman.[42]

Regarding his personality at this time, Saint Ignatius himself said that until the age of 26 he was "given to the vanities of the world, and chiefly delighted in the exercise of arms with a great and vain desire to win honor".[43]

He, his brother Pero and some other members of the family clan were accused of committing acts of violence against the clergy of the parish of Azpeitia, with whom they had disagreements, during the Carnival of 1515. The crime is said to have taken place "at night, with deliberate intent, treacherously and with an ambush". There was a criminal trial, of which some documents survive, and in the end he was released.[44][45]

Ferdinand the Catholic was with Juan Velázquez in Segovia, Burgos, Valladolid, Tordesillas, Medina del Campo, Madrid and Toledo. The Jesuit historian Luis Fernández Martín says that in 1508 Ferdinand the Catholic was with this Chief Treasurer in Córdoba and Seville. There is documentation showing that Ferdinand was with his Chief Treasurers in Seville again in 1511. It is quite possible that Saint Ignatius accompanied Juan Velázquez on these journeys.[46]

Ferdinand the Catholic died in January 1516, which brought about the ruin of Juan Velázquez. Charles I ordered that the towns of Arévalo, Madrigal de las Altas Torres, Olmedo and Santa María la Real de Nieva be given to Germaine of Foix. The first two towns had previously been entrusted to Juan Velázquez, and it was ordered that he hold them in Germaine's name and render her honors. This did not entail any economic loss for Juan Velázquez, but he refused and put Arévalo on a war footing. According to Prudencio de Sandoval, this lasted from November 1516 to March 1517. Juan Velázquez, who was burdened with a debt of 16 million maravedís and who had lost his firstborn Gutierre in the fighting, went to Madrid in June 1517 to see Cardinal Cisneros and died in that city on August 12 of that year.[47][48]

María de Velasco gave Saint Ignatius 500 escudos and two horses so that he could go to Pamplona to offer his services to the Duke of Nájera, Antonio Manrique de Lara, who since May 1516 had been Viceroy of Navarre.[40] The Viceroy appointed him a gentleman of his household.[49]

Antonio Manrique de Lara was with Charles I at the Cortes of Valladolid of 1518. It is possible that Saint Ignatius accompanied him. There his brother, Martín García, Lord of Loyola, obtained permission from the Monarch to establish an entailed estate (mayorazgo) thanks to the intervention of the Duke of Nájera.[49]

In the context of the War of the Communities of Castile (1520–1522), the town of Nájera rebelled against Antonio Manrique de Lara. On September 18, 1520, Saint Ignatius took part in the expedition that subdued the rebels. According to Juan Alfonso de Polanco, some of the members of the expedition devoted themselves to plunder, but Saint Ignatius did not fall into that, giving proof "of a great, noble and generous spirit".[49]

In 1521 some towns of Gipuzkoa, among them Azpeitia and Azcoitia, protested against the appointment of Cristóbal de Acuña as Corregidor of the province, arguing that it went against their fueros. According to Juan Alfonso de Polanco, the Duke of Nájera made use of Saint Ignatius to resolve the conflict, and an arbitral award was signed on April 12, 1521. Polanco adds that Saint Ignatius gave proof "of being ingenious and prudent in the things of the world and of knowing how to deal with men's minds, especially in knowing how to settle differences or discords".[50]

In 1512 the Castilian troops had conquered the Kingdom of Navarre. In 1521 King Francis I of France decided to support Henry d'Albret in his aspirations to the throne of Navarre, counting on the support of the Agramontese Navarrese. The Viceroy of Navarre went to Segovia to request the reinforcements needed to defend the territory and left Pedro de Beaumont in charge of the defense of Pamplona. The residents and the Council of Pamplona argued that command belonged to them in the absence of the Viceroy and decided to leave.[9]

In May 1521 Martín García de Oñaz and his brother Saint Ignatius arrived in Pamplona with a group of soldiers they had gathered in Gipuzkoa. Martín García saw the situation and decided to leave with the troops, but Saint Ignatius considered that this was fleeing and decided to go to the castle of Pamplona to take part in the defense of the city. On May 19 its warden, Miguel de Herrera, also shut himself up in the castle. That same day the deputies of Pamplona swore loyalty to Henry d'Albret in Villava.[9]

The French conquered Pamplona and went on to take the castle, which was then under construction. According to the Jesuit historian Joseph Marie Cros, among the attackers were two brothers of Saint Francis Xavier: Miguel and Juan de Jassu.[51] Saint Ignatius managed to prevent a capitulation.[52] In the fighting, a culverin or falconet ball broke one of his legs and injured the other. The Jesuit Niccolò Orlandini says that this happened on May 20, 1521, Pentecost Monday. The surrender of the castle took place on May 23 or 24.[9]

The French gave Saint Ignatius first aid and the Spaniards carried him on a litter to the house of Esteban de Zuasti. He was then moved to the house of Loyola, where he was received by the married couple Martín García and Magdalena de Araoz.[53]

According to Saint Ignatius himself, the bones were set badly in the first treatment and he had to be operated on again. His health worsened and, on June 28, the physicians said that if he did not improve before midnight he would die. That same night, the eve of the feast of Saints Peter and Paul, he began to feel better.[53]

The bones gradually knit, but in one of the legs one bone was left overlapping the other, making it shorter and with a lump. Because of this, he decided to undergo a new operation, more painful than the previous one.[54]

Saint Ignatius said that he was treated by physicians and surgeons, in the plural, and the name of one surgeon who treated him is known: Martín de Iztiola, of Azpeitia.[54]

Religious aspirations

During his convalescence he wanted to read books of chivalry, but there were none in the house of Loyola. Instead he read the Vita Christi, a work in four volumes by the Carthusian Ludolph of Saxony translated by the Franciscan Ambrosio Montesino. He also read the Flos sanctorum, a book of lives of saints written by the Dominican Jacobus de Voragine and translated by the Cistercian Gauberte Fabricio de Vagad.[55]

During this period he also spent a great deal of time thinking about what to say to a lady and what feats of arms to accomplish in order to win her. It is not known whether this woman existed or was an imaginary figure. It is possible that she was Catherine of Austria, sister of Charles I, whom he may have met in Tordesillas or Valladolid. Catherine married John III of Portugal in 1525.[55]

Saint Ignatius began to discern how thoughts about God entered with difficulty but left him content and at peace, while thoughts of the world entered easily and left him discontented. Thoughts of God led him to imitate the saints. He then made the decision to go to Jerusalem and to lead a life of rigorous penance.[56]

His autobiography says:

And having gained no little light from this reading, he began to think more seriously about his past life, and about how great a need he had to do penance for it. And here the desires to imitate the saints came to him, without considering any further circumstances than to promise himself, with the grace of God, to do as they had done. But all that he desired to do, as soon as he was healed, was the journey to Jerusalem, as was said above, with as many disciplines and as many abstinences as a generous spirit, inflamed by God, is wont to desire to do.

While he lay awake one night, the Virgin Mary appeared to him with the Child Jesus, which consoled him.[57]

Afterwards he took a notebook of some 300 leaves and set about writing on the religious books he was reading. He wrote the words of Jesus Christ in red ink and those of the Virgin Mary in blue ink.[57]

He resolved to enter the Monastery of Santa María de las Cuevas in Seville as a Carthusian, and asked a friend who was going to Burgos to go to the Monastery of Santa María de Miraflores and inform him about its Carthusian rule. Saint Ignatius liked this rule, but in the end he did not join that order.[58]

Meanwhile, on August 21, 1521, the Duke of Nájera was removed from the office of Viceroy of Navarre and, at the beginning of 1522, Adrian VI, who was in Spain, was chosen Pope. The new Pope was to pass through Zaragoza and Barcelona before reaching Rome.[59]

Saint Ignatius left the house of Loyola at the end of February 1522 accompanied by a brother. This was possibly the cleric Pero López. They first went to the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Aránzazu. Saint Ignatius kept a prayer vigil before venerating the Virgin of Aránzazu. It is possible that it was at this Marian sanctuary that he made his vow of chastity.[60]

He then took leave of his sister Magdalena in Anzuola. In this place or in Oñate he parted from his brother and continued alone to the Riojan town of Navarrete to meet the Duke of Nájera. His purpose was to take leave of the Duke and ask him for a few ducats that he owed him. After collecting the money he distributed it and gave part of it for the adornment of an image of the Virgin.[61]

From La Rioja to Barcelona the road passed through Tudela, Pedrola, Zaragoza, Lérida, Cervera and Igualada.[62]

In a town near Barcelona, possibly Igualada, he bought some esparto sandals for his feet and some sackcloth to make himself a pilgrim's tunic. He put on only one of the sandals, on his right foot, since his right leg was the more badly injured one.[63]

He arrived at the Monastery of Montserrat, of the Benedictines, where he made a general confession of his whole life with the French friar Juan Chanon. On March 24 he kept only the pilgrim's tunic and gave the rest of his clothes to a poor man. He then kept a vigil before the altar of the Virgin of Montserrat during the night between March 24 and 25, 1522.[64]

Relief of Saint Ignatius seeing the Virgin Mary with the Child Jesus. Holy Cave of Manresa.

He decided to go for a few days to the Hospital of Santa Lucía in Manresa, where he arrived on March 25. Saint Ignatius said that he avoided staying in the City of Barcelona so as not to be recognized. He may have been concerned about meeting the retinue of Pope Adrian VI, among whom there were officials who knew him, although at that time this group was still in Zaragoza.[65]

It so happened that at that time there was an epidemic of plague in Barcelona and outsiders were forbidden to enter. Another matter was that, in order to travel to Jerusalem, he needed the Pope to grant him authorization at Easter, which that year fell on April 22, and it was impossible for him to reach Rome before that date. These must have been the reasons why he spent eleven months in Manresa.[65]

In Manresa he lodged at the Hospital of Santa Lucía, at the convent of the Dominicans (where Garcelán Perelló was his confessor) and in the houses of benefactors surnamed Ferrer, Amigant and Canyelles. He would withdraw to pray in a cave on the side of a hill beside the Cardener River.[66]

The Chapel of the Rapture next to the Church of Santa Lucía in Manresa. The originals were destroyed in the Civil War (1936–1939), and what can be seen today is a reconstruction from the 1950s.[67]
Interior of the cave of Manresa where Ignatius of Loyola withdrew to meditate, nowadays converted into a sanctuary.

Ribadeneira and Polanco relate that one Saturday, while Saint Ignatius was in the Hospital of Santa Lucía in Manresa, he fell unconscious and came to on the following Saturday saying "Ah, Jesus". The 17th-century Jesuit Daniello Bartoli said that Saint Ignatius had a vision of the Society of Jesus in this episode, but this is not known. This has been called the Rapture of Saint Ignatius.[68]

Cross of the Tort. Manresa. The original cross disappeared in 1902 and this is a replica from 1903.[69]

On another occasion, he himself related that, as he was going to the Church of San Pablo in Manresa, he had a mystical experience, different from a vision, in which a great deal of knowledge came over him. This episode has been called the Illumination of the Cardener. After this, he knelt before the Cross of the Tort, which stood along the way.[70] The Jesuits Nicolás Lanicici and Nicolás Orlandini confused this event with the Rapture of Saint Ignatius.[68]

In Manresa he wrote his spiritual exercises, which he would correct and expand during his stays in Paris and Rome.[71]

During his time in Manresa he struck up a friendship with a Cistercian friar of the Convent of San Pablo.[72]

In February 1523 he set out for Barcelona. He prayed in the Marcús Chapel to Our Lady of Guidance and went to Febers Street, today called Saint Ignatius Street, where Inés Pascual had her house and her shop. He lodged in the house of this benefactress. He frequented the Monastery of San Matías, of Hieronymite nuns. He also frequented the Monastery of San Jerónimo del Valle de Hebrón and the hermitages in Sant Genís dels Agudells.[73]

One day, as he was listening to a sermon on the steps of the Church of Saints Justus and Pastor in Barcelona, a woman named Isabel Ferrer, wife of Francisco Roser or Rosell, saw Saint Ignatius's face light up and heard a voice saying to her: "Call him, call him". The couple decided to invite Ignatius to their home and, when Isabel heard him speak about religion, she decided to become his greatest benefactress during the saint's stays in Barcelona, Paris and Venice.[73]

In March 1523 he embarked at Barcelona bound for Gaeta. He spent a couple of days in Fondi and arrived in Rome on March 29, Palm Sunday. He requested permission to travel to the Holy Land and obtained it on March 31.[74]

He left Rome on April 13 or 14 and passed through Orvieto, Spoleto, Macerata, Pesaro, Rimini, Ravenna, Comacchio and Chioggia. He then had to go to Padua to obtain a medical certificate in order to be able to enter Venice. In Padua he had an apparition of Jesus Christ that comforted him.[75]

In Venice he lived as a beggar, sleeping in the porticoes of St. Mark's Square, until he met a wealthy Spaniard who invited him to stay in his house until the day he embarked.[76]

He fell ill and had to embark while still convalescent on July 14. He reached the port of Famagusta, on the island of Cyprus, on August 14. He walked to Larnaca, where he embarked on August 19 bound for Jaffa, which he reached on August 24, but the crew did not obtain permission to disembark until the 31st of that month.[77]

He then passed through Ramla and arrived in Jerusalem on September 4, 1523.[77]

On September 5 he heard Mass at the Convent of Zion, where the Franciscans were between 1335[78] and 1551.[79] He then visited the Cenacle and the Abbey of the Dormition of the Virgin. He spent the night in vigil at the Holy Sepulchre. On the afternoon of September 6 he walked the Via Dolorosa. On September 7 he was in Bethany and on the Mount of Olives. On September 8 and 9 he was in Bethlehem. On September 10 and 11 he went through the Valley of Josaphat and, after passing the Kidron brook, visited the garden of Gethsemane on the Mount of Olives. On September 14 he set out for Jericho and the Jordan River. He then considered staying at the convent of Zion, but the provincial refused to admit him.[80]

On September 23 he set out again for Ramla. He embarked at Jaffa on October 3 and arrived in Larnaca on the 14th of that month. During his second stay in Cyprus he visited a church of the Franciscans in Nicosia. He then embarked again and, at the end of December, reached a port in the region of Apulia. In January he arrived in Venice, where he met again the wealthy Spaniard who had taken him in, who this time gave him 15 or 16 julios, a coin equivalent to a tenth of a ducat. After crossing the regions of Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, Lombardy and Liguria he reached the city of Genoa, where he took a ship for Barcelona.[81]

He decided to study and thought that the Cistercian he had met in Manresa could help him in this, but he had already died by the time he returned to Catalonia. In Barcelona, his friend Isabel offered to pay his expenses while he studied, and the bachelor Jerónimo Ardevol offered to give him lessons free of charge, and he accepted.[72]

During this stay in Barcelona he again lodged in a room of Inés Pascual's house.[72]

With Ardevol, he began to learn Latin using as a textbook the Introductiones in linguam latinam of Antonio de Nebrija.[82]

Saint Ignatius, in turn, began at this stage in Barcelona to impart his religious teachings to three companions: Calixto de Sa, Juan de Arteaga and Lope de Cáceres.[83]

In Barcelona, Saint Ignatius was in contact with Hieronymite nuns of the Convent of San Matías, Benedictine nuns of the Convent of Santa Clara (among whom was Teresa Rejadella, with whom he would correspond) and Dominican nuns of the Convent of Nuestra Señora de los Ángeles.[84]

When he finished his second course of Latin, Ardevol recommended that he go to study at the University of Alcalá de Henares. His stay in Alcalá de Henares may have lasted from March 1526 to June 1527, and he said he had studied the Súmulas of Domingo de Soto, the Physicorum libri VIII of Albertus Magnus and the Sententiarum libri IV of Peter Lombard.[85]

In Alcalá de Henares he gave spiritual exercises and explained Christian doctrine to people who approached him,[85] such as the student Martín de Olabe and the priests Estella Diego de Eguía and Manuel Miona.[86]

In Alcalá de Henares he stayed at the Hospital de Antezana. He usually went about with his three companions from Barcelona: Calixto de Sa, Juan de Arteaga and Lope de Cáceres. In the hospital he met Juan Reynalde, a wounded page of the Viceroy of Navarre who also decided to follow him. Saint Ignatius and his companions wore light brown habits.[87]

The inquisitors of Toledo Miguel Carrasco and Alonso Mejía came to Alcalá de Henares to investigate him and his companions. On November 26, 1526, they questioned the Franciscan Fernando Rubio and later a hospital keeper. The inquisitors then left the matter in the hands of the episcopal vicar of Toledo, Juan Rodríguez de Figueroa.[87]

Figueroa told Saint Ignatius and his companions that he had found nothing wrong in them, but that they must stop all wearing the same habit since they were not religious, so Saint Ignatius and Arteaga dyed their clothes black and the other two tawny.[88]

Men and women regularly came to the hospital to receive the spiritual exercises from Saint Ignatius and to have him teach them Christian doctrine.[88]

In 1527 Saint Ignatius moved to live in a small house. On April 18 or 19 he was arrested by a constable and put in jail without anyone telling him why. The reason was that a mother with her daughter and a maidservant had gone on pilgrimage to see the Holy Face of Jaén Cathedral and the Virgin of Guadalupe in Extremadura, and Figueroa thought that they had committed this rash act on the advice of Saint Ignatius. Seventeen days later, Figueroa went to the jail to question him and asked him whether he had told those women to make those pilgrimages, and he answered no. When those women returned to Alcalá they confirmed Saint Ignatius's account and, on June 1, he was released.[89]

Nevertheless, the sentence of the trial required Saint Ignatius and his companions to dress like the other students, with clothes provided to them by the vicar himself, and not to speak about the faith until they had studied for four years.[90]

Saint Ignatius went to speak about this with the Archbishop of Toledo, Alonso de Fonseca y Ulloa, who was then in Valladolid. The archbishop received him cordially and, on taking leave of him, gave him four escudos.[90]

He decided to continue his studies in Salamanca and moved there in July 1527, where he joined his other four companions.[91]

He chose as his confessor a Dominican of the Convent of San Esteban in Salamanca. The confessor told him that the rest of the Dominicans wanted to speak with him and invited him to dine one Sunday. He went with Calixto. Then the subprior Nicolás de Santo Tomás and the confessor took them to a chapel and questioned Saint Ignatius about what he preached. Saint Ignatius answered that they spoke of virtues and vices, and the Dominicans, who knew that he had no learning, asked him whether he spoke inspired by the Holy Spirit. Saint Ignatius would not answer this.[92]

Saint Ignatius and Calixto remained in the convent for three days, during which there was division among the Dominicans themselves about what to do with them. Then a notary arrived who informed Saint Ignatius and Calixto that they must go to jail. They were questioned by Martín Frías, vicar of the Bishop of Salamanca. Saint Ignatius handed over the papers with his spiritual exercises so that they could be examined. After asking about the rest of the companions, they also jailed Lope de Cáceres and Juan de Arteaga.[93]

A few days later Saint Ignatius was brought before four judges, one of whom was Martín Frías, and was questioned about his spiritual exercises and other theological matters.[93]

After three weeks in prison Saint Ignatius and his companions were released without anything reprehensible having been found in their morals or their doctrine, but by a sentence they were forbidden to say what was a mortal or a venial sin until after four years of study.[94]

Studies in Paris

He went once more to Barcelona, where he met his benefactors and told them of his intention to go to study in Paris.[95]

He arrived on foot in the French capital on February 2, 1528. He began to study humanities at the Collège de Montaigu.[96] At first he stayed in a boarding house but, when his money ran out, he lodged at the hospice of Saint-Jacques, on the Rue Saint-Denis.[97]

A Spanish friar advised him to go every year to Flanders, where in Bruges and Antwerp he would find Spanish merchants who could help him financially. In Lent 1529 he went to this region, meeting Juan Luis Vives in Bruges.[98]

Between May and June 1529 he gave his spiritual exercises in Paris to three Spanish students: Juan de Castro, Pedro de Peralta and Amador Elduayen. All three changed their attitude toward life, and Saint Ignatius's preaching began to be considered subversive. These opinions reached the inquisitor Mateo Ory, who decided not to take any action against him.[99]

In 1529 he began to study philosophy at the College of Sainte-Barbe. He lodged in a room shared with his teacher Juan Peña, the Savoyard Peter Faber and the Navarrese Francis Xavier.[100]

On Sundays Saint Ignatius gathered students in a Carthusian convent to talk about spirituality, go to confession and receive Communion.[101]

He made a second trip to Flanders between August and September 1530.[98]

He made a third trip to Flanders between August and September 1531. During this period he reached London. He returned to Paris with more money than on the two previous occasions and was able to help less fortunate students financially.[98]

Saint Ignatius became a bachelor in 1532.[102]

On March 13, 1533 (according to the reckoning of the year from Easter, which would place the event in 1534 of our calendar), Saint Ignatius went in procession from the Convent of Saint-Mathurin, of the Trinitarians, on the Rue Saint-Jacques, to the Abbey of Sainte-Geneviève, where he was made a licentiate.[103]

On March 14, 1534 (which corresponds to the year 1535 of our calendar), the University of Paris granted him the diploma of master in the liberal arts.[104]

Saint Ignatius began to study theology at the Convent of Saint-Jacques, of the Dominicans, but was unable to complete these studies in Paris. The University of Paris issued him a diploma, dated October 14, 1536, stating that he had completed a year and a half of theology.[105]

Founding of the Society of Jesus

The Portuguese Simão Rodrigues and the Spaniard Francis Xavier began to associate with Saint Ignatius in 1533.[106] The Italian Peter Faber made the spiritual exercises of Saint Ignatius at the beginning of 1534 and was ordained a priest on May 30 of that year.[106] The Spaniards Diego Laínez and Alfonso Salmerón also made the Ignatian spiritual exercises in 1534. That same year another Spaniard joined Saint Ignatius: Nicolás de Bobadilla.[107]

On August 15, 1534, the day of the Assumption, Saint Ignatius and these companions gathered in a chapel dedicated to the Virgin Mary at Montmartre. This chapel stood where Saint Denis of Paris and his companions were martyred. Peter Faber celebrated a Mass and they all made a vow. The vow consisted of helping their neighbor and living in poverty. The vow included going to the port of Venice to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem but, if within a year they had not been able to embark, they would go to Rome and place themselves at the disposal of the Pope so that he might send them wherever he considered fitting.[108]

Main façade of the Church of the Gesù in Rome, mother house of the Society of Jesus.

In April 1535 Saint Ignatius set out for Spain for several reasons. He was suffering from stomach trouble and the physicians ended up recommending the air of his native town. Also, according to Polanco, he wanted to leave a new image of himself in Azpeitia to make amends for his bad examples of the past. In Spain, he would take charge of settling the pending affairs of his Spanish companions.[109]

On the way to his homeland he passed through the inn of Iturrioz, which still exists. In Azpeitia, he lodged at the Hospital of la Magdalena.[110] He devoted himself to preaching at the Hermitage of la Magdalena and at the Hermitage of Our Lady of Elosiaga.[111] On May 18, 1535, Saint Ignatius helped to end a conflict of more than twenty years between the nuns of the Convent of la Concepción, who were Franciscan tertiaries known as the "isabelitas", and the parish of Azpeitia.[112]

In July 1535 he went to Obanos, where he delivered a letter from Francis Xavier to his brother, Captain Juan de Azpilicueta. He then went to Almazán, where he delivered a letter to Diego Laínez's father. He passed through Sigüenza and reached Madrid, where he got to see Prince Philip. He reached Toledo, the birthplace of Alfonso Salmerón. At the Charterhouse of Vall de Crist in Altura he met his friend Juan de Castro, whom he had known in Paris and who had made the spiritual exercises. In Valencia he embarked for Italy.[113]

He reached the port of Genoa in October or November 1535. Since he had arranged to meet his companions in Venice at the beginning of 1537, he decided to devote the time remaining until then to completing his theological studies in Bologna.[114] During his stay there, he visited the College of San Clemente, for Spanish students, where some acquaintances gave him food.[115]

Saint Ignatius never became a student of the College of San Clemente and probably lodged in some boarding house in Bologna. In this city he was ill for a week in December 1535. After his convalescence, he decided to go directly to Venice.[115]

In Venice he lodged in the house of a benefactor, possibly Andrés Lippomano, prior of the Convent of the Trinity. Isabel Roser and the archdeacon Jaime de Casador sent him money from Barcelona.[115]

During his stay in Venice he gave the spiritual exercises to various people, among them: Pedro Contarini, procurator of the Hospital of the Incurables; Gaspar de Dotti, procurator of the nuncio; and Diego de Hoces of Málaga, who became a companion of Saint Ignatius.[116]

He met Gian Pietro Carafa, who together with Saint Cajetan of Thiene had founded the Theatines in 1524. Saint Ignatius disagreed with the practices of the Theatines and had a different spirituality.[117]

In Paris, Saint Ignatius's companions renewed the vow on August 15, 1535, and 1536. On the second occasion they were joined by the Italian Claudio Jayo and the Frenchmen Jean Codure and Paschase Broët.[118] The companions left Paris on November 15, 1536, and arrived in Venice on January 8, 1537.[119]

Saint Ignatius and his companions waited in Venice until Easter, when they could request permission in Rome to make the pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The companions lodged in the hospitals of Saints John and Paul and of the Incurables, where they cared for the sick. On March 16 they set out for Rome, where they arrived on March 25.[120]

According to Polanco, it was before reaching Rome that the companions asked themselves what name to give themselves if someone asked them what congregation they belonged to. They then began to pray and to think about the most suitable name, and finally decided to call themselves the Society of Jesus, since they had no one to command them and wished only to serve Jesus.[121]

In Rome they lodged in the hospice attached to the Church of Santiago de los Españoles.[120]

One of the counselors of the Roman hospice was Pedro Ortiz, who obtained for them an audience with Pope Paul III on April 3 at the Castel Sant'Angelo. They dined together and talked about theology, leaving the Pope very satisfied. Paul III gave them his blessing, granted them verbal permission to go to Jerusalem and gave them 60 ducats for the journey. Other cardinals and members of the Curia did the same as the Pope, so that Saint Ignatius and his companions gathered 260 ducats.[120]

On April 27, 1537, two documents were issued to them: the permission to go to Jerusalem and the dimissorial letters, signed by Cardinal Antonio Pucci, to be ordained priests by any bishop.[122]

Saint Ignatius and his companions returned to Venice at the beginning of May 1537[122] to wait for a ship departing for the Holy Land, but that year none sailed because of the war being waged in the Mediterranean against the Ottomans.[123]

In Venice they devoted themselves to charitable work. On May 31, after taking part in the Corpus Christi procession, they were presented to the Doge Andrea Gritti.[122]

Vicente Nigusanti, Bishop of Arbe, ordained Saint Ignatius and most of his companions who were not yet priests. On June 10 they received minor orders, on June 15 the subdiaconate and on June 24 the priesthood.[123]

While they waited for a ship to sail for the Holy Land, they decided to separate in order to say Mass and preach. On July 25 Saint Ignatius, Faber and Laínez set out for Vicenza, Xavier and Salmerón for Monselice, Codure and Hoces for Treviso, Jay, Salmerón and Rodrigues for Bassano del Grappa and Bobadilla and Broët for Verona.[124]

Saint Ignatius, Faber and Laínez lodged in the abandoned Monastery of San Pietro in Vivarolo, on the outskirts of Vicenza. Forty days later Codure joined them.[124] Then Saint Ignatius and Faber went to Bassano del Grappa to visit Rodrigues, who was ill.[125]

In October 1537 Saint Ignatius and all his companions gathered in the abandoned monastery in Vicenza, except Xavier and Rodrigues, who were in the hospital.[125] They then decided to split up again. Ignatius, Faber and Laínez went to Rome, Codure and Hoces to Padua, Jay and Rodrigues to Ferrara, Xavier and Bobadilla to Bologna, and Broët and Salmerón to Siena.[121]

Previously, some had spread the rumor that Saint Ignatius had been persecuted in Spain and France and that an effigy of him had been burned. The legate Verallo entrusted his vicar, Gaspar de Dotti, with investigating the matter. Saint Ignatius was acquitted by a sentence of October 17, 1537, and was summoned to Venice to hear it. The sentence described the accusations as false and described him as a priest of good life and sound doctrine.[126]

At the end of October or the beginning of November 1537 Saint Ignatius set out for Rome with Faber and Laínez.[127]

On the journey Saint Ignatius heard an inner voice. According to Laínez, the voice said to Saint Ignatius "I will be favorable to you in Rome". The Jesuits Jerónimo Nadal and Ribadeneira wrote that the voice said to him, simply, "I will be favorable to you". Nadal, in another writing, says that the voice said "I will be with you", which is the phrase preferred by Peter Canisius.[127]

Then Saint Ignatius stopped with Faber and Laínez in a church, which according to tradition is a chapel in the locality of La Storta. There, he himself relates, he had a vision in which God the Father placed him with Jesus Christ. Laínez said that Jesus had appeared to Saint Ignatius carrying the cross, beside God the Father, that God the Father had said to Jesus "I want you to take this one as your servant", and that Jesus then said to Saint Ignatius "I want you to serve us".[128]

In Rome they lodged in some houses belonging to Quirino Garzoni, on the present-day Via del Sebastianello. Saint Ignatius devoted himself to giving his spiritual exercises while his two companions taught classes at the University of Rome. Among the exercitants of this period were the physician Íñigo López, the ambassador of Siena Lactancio Tolomei and Cardinal Gasparo Contarini.[129]

In Lent 1538 Saint Ignatius gave the spiritual exercises to the professor of Sacred Scripture Pedro Ortiz at the Abbey of Montecassino.[129] During this period his companion Diego de Hoces died, and Saint Ignatius had a vision of him rising to Heaven.[130]

When Saint Ignatius and Ortiz were returning to Rome from Montecassino they met Francisco Estrada, a native of Dueñas. He made the spiritual exercises in Rome and became another companion. In Rome, they were also joined by the priest Lorenzo García, from Jaén.[130]

During Lent 1538 the religious Agustín Mainardi gave some sermons in the Church of Sant'Agostino in Rome that were heard by Faber and Laínez. The two companions visited Mainardi privately to ask him to retract some Lutheran statements he had made in his sermons, but he refused. Several Spaniards who favored Mainardi and were influential in the Roman Curia (Francisco Mudarra, Barrera, Pedro de Castilla and Mateo Pascual), together with the former companion Miguel Landívar, began to spread the hoax that Saint Ignatius and his companions were in reality Lutherans persecuted in Spain, France and Venice. Cardinal Juan Domingo de Cupis believed these slanders, and Saint Ignatius went to see him at his palace, convincing him that they were lies. Then Saint Ignatius went to see the governor Benito Conversini and showed him a letter by Landívar full of praise for his group, written when he was a companion. After this, Landívar was expelled from Rome.[131]

In Rome, Saint Ignatius preached in Castilian at the Church of Santa María de Montserrat de los Españoles.[132]

Around June 1538 Saint Ignatius and his companions moved to another house, near the Ponte Sisto.[133] In October they moved to a house belonging to Antonio Frangipani next to the tower of the Melangolo, at what is now number 16 Via dei Delfini. In this house they devoted themselves to caring for the poor.[134]

Francisco Mudarra, Barrera, Pedro de Castilla and Mateo Pascual continued to denigrate Saint Ignatius and his companions. Saint Ignatius responded by filing a lawsuit on July 7, 1538, before the Pope's legate, Cardinal Vicente Carafa. Then Mudarra and the others backed down and began to praise Saint Ignatius and his companions. Saint Ignatius did not consider this sufficient, and he and his companions requested letters from the authorities of the cities where they had been to bear witness to their good conduct. Letters of praise arrived in Rome from Ferrara, Bologna and Siena. Saint Ignatius was received in audience by the Pope in August at Frascati and asked him to open a trial to establish his innocence. The Pope agreed and, after the testimony of numerous people, the governor Benito Conversini issued a favorable sentence on November 18, 1538.[135]

After the long and fruitless wait to go to Jerusalem, in November 1538 Saint Ignatius and his companions offered their services to the Pope, in accordance with the vow made at Montmartre. Paul III accepted the offer.[11]

Ignatius would celebrate his first Mass at the altar of the Crib in the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore on Christmas night of the year 1538.[136]

Saint Ignatius of Loyola (between 1680 and 1683), work by Claudio Coello, kept in the Church of Nuestra Señora de la Asunción in Valdemoro, Madrid.

In March 1539 Saint Ignatius and his companions began to deliberate on the creation of a new order.[137] On April 15, 1539, they decided unanimously to establish the vow of obedience to one of them.[138] Between May and June it was decided that the Society of Jesus would have, in addition to the vows of poverty, chastity and obedience usual in other orders, another vow of obedience to the Pope that would oblige them to go to any place in the world to which he might send them.[4]

The result of the deliberations was set down by Saint Ignatius in a "formula" of five chapters that Cardinal Gasparo Contarini presented to Pope Paul III for his approval. The Pope entrusted the Dominican Tomás Badía with examining the "formula", and he judged it good and holy.[139]

Saint Ignatius entrusted his companion Antonio de Araoz with taking the "formula" and Tomás Badía's opinion to the Pope, who was in Tivoli. The Pope read the documents and approved them verbally on September 3, 1539, saying: "Here is the spirit of God".[139]

Afterwards, the Pope entrusted Cardinal Jerónimo Ghinucci with drafting a document of approval. Ghinucci raised many objections to the "formula", and the Pope decided to leave the matter in the hands of Cardinal Bartolomé Guidiccioni. The latter raised no objections to the "formula" but was reluctant to see new orders created. Saint Ignatius went to speak with him without success and then devoted himself to writing to influential figures in Italy so that they would intercede with the Pope in favor of the project. Finally, Guidiccioni proposed to the Pope that the Society of Jesus be limited to 60 professed members, and the Pope accepted the recommendation. In the end, the creation of the Society of Jesus (in Latin Societas Iesu, also known as the Jesuits) was approved with the bull Regimini militantis Ecclesiae on September 27, 1540. This included the five chapters of the "formula" with some modifications.[140]

In February 1541 Saint Ignatius and his companions moved to another house, rented from Camilo Astalli.[141]

Superior General of the Jesuits

In the Chapel of Saint Ignatius of the Church of the Gesù in Rome is the gilded bronze urn that holds the saint's remains. It is the work of Alessandro Algardi; the altarpiece was made by the Jesuit Andrea Pozzo and completed in 1695.[142]
Sculpture depicting Ignatius of Loyola, located in Vatican City.

On April 5, 1541, the vote was held for the General of the Society. Some voted in person and others sent their vote. All voted for Saint Ignatius, and he wrote on his ballot IHS, stating that he excluded himself and that he would obey whatever was decided. He was not content with being General himself, saying that he preferred obeying to commanding, and asked for a new vote. This took place on April 13, with the same result. This time Saint Ignatius said that he would consult his confessor about it. He went to the Convent of San Pietro in Montorio, where he went to confession and spoke with the Franciscan Teodosio de Lodi, who told him that he must accept the election because doing otherwise would be to disobey the Holy Spirit. Saint Ignatius accepted the office on April 19, and on April 22 he made his profession at the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, where he also celebrated a Mass.[143]

On June 24, 1541, Paul III gave the Jesuits the Church of Santa Maria della Strada. They took possession of the church on May 15, 1542. They built a house next to this church, to which they moved in September 1544.[141] The title of Santa Maria della Strada is referred to in Spanish as Nuestra Señora del Buen Camino.

To benefit Jews who were baptized, Saint Ignatius obtained the Pope's approval of the brief Cupientes on May 21, 1542, which prohibited the custom of taking from converts the property they had previously acquired and of disinheriting their children.[144]

He also obtained the Pope's approval of the bull Illius qui pro dominici on February 19, 1543, for the creation of a house for male catechumens and another for female catechumens. For these works he had the support of Margaret of Parma and Jerónima Orsini.[144]

Saint Ignatius was concerned about prostitutes who were married or had children. To help them he created the Company of Our Lady of Grace, which 170 collaborators joined. This organization was approved by the bull Divina summaque Dei bonitas of February 16, 1543. With these means, he created the House of Santa Marta for them. Thinking also of adolescent girls who ran the risk of ending up in prostitution, he also promoted the Company of the Unhappy Maidens (in Latin Virginum Miserabilium) and created for them the House of Santa Catalina de Funari.[145] This last institution was approved verbally by Paul III and in writing by Pope Pius IV on January 6, 1560.[146]

In 1215 the Holy See had decreed that physicians should stop attending sick people who refused to receive the last sacraments. Saint Ignatius noticed that this practice had fallen into disuse. In 1543 he proposed that physicians stop providing their services to a sick person if he refused three times to receive the last sacraments. He succeeded in having Cardinal Rodolfo Pío de Carpi apply this policy in his diocese of Faenza and in having it applied in Rome as well around 1544, but he did not obtain any papal decree on the matter.[147]

In Rome, Saint Ignatius collaborated with the Confraternity of Santa María de la Visitación de Huérfanos, erected by the papal bull Altitudo of February 7, 1541, which assisted poor orphaned children.[148]

Saint Ignatius pressed Cardinals Gian Pietro Carafa and Juan Álvarez de Toledo hard to have the Inquisition established in Rome. They spoke with Paul III, who instituted it with the bull Liceb at initio on July 21, 1542.[149]

In 1541 Saint Ignatius became a brother of the Confraternity of the Hospital of the Holy Spirit. That same year Saint Ignatius and five companions became brothers of the Confraternity of the Most Holy Sacrament, which had been established by the Dominican Tomás Stella in 1538 in the Church of Santa María sobre Minerva.[150]

In 1543 Isabel Roser, by then a widow, arrived in Rome. Saint Ignatius put her in charge of the House of Santa Marta, but she wanted to enter the Society of Jesus. Ignatius paid no heed to this request, but she appealed directly to the Pope and obtained what she sought. At Christmas 1545 Isabel Roser, her maidservant Francisca Cruyllas and the Italian Lucrecia de Biàdene made their profession. Two nephews of Isabel came to Rome and were indignant at their aunt's financial contributions to the Society. Isabel then began to make claims and ended up outside the order. Finally, Isabel asked forgiveness for her attitude, Saint Ignatius directed her to become a Poor Clare in Barcelona, and they continued their relationship by letter.[145]

Portrait of Ignatius of Loyola as Superior General of the Society of Jesus, work by Francisco de Zurbarán.

As early as March 1541 a modification of the "formula" of the Society of Jesus was considered. In 1544 the Pope ended the restriction to 60 professed members, and in 1546 he introduced the grades of spiritual and temporal coadjutors. With the bull Licet debitum of October 18, 1549, the Pope granted the Society of Jesus a great number of privileges. On the other hand, the Jesuits decided to modify the formula, expressing some points more clearly to prevent them from raising scruples. All these papal concessions and changes were set down in a new "formula", which was approved by Pope Julius III with the bull Exposcit debitum of July 21, 1550.[151]

In March 1541 Saint Ignatius and Codure drew up an outline in the manner of constitutions with 49 points, which were signed by Saint Ignatius, Laínez, Salmerón, Codure, Broët and Jay. Codure died on August 29, 1541, and the rest of these companions of Saint Ignatius went to different places, so they could not meet again. Between 1541 and 1547 Saint Ignatius drafted some points by himself. In 1547 Polanco became secretary of the Society of Jesus and work on the constitutions began to advance further. Nevertheless, the Jesuit Nadal said that, according to Saint Ignatius, the only part of the constitutions written by Polanco was what referred to the colleges. In 1550 a first text of the constitutions appeared, and in 1552 a second text. It is recorded that Saint Ignatius continued correcting the constitutions until 1556. The Jesuits Laínez and Nadal considered that, by then, the constitutions could be regarded as finished.[152] The Latin motto Ad maiorem Dei gloriam ("For the greater glory of God") appears more than 170 times in the constitutions.[153]

The spiritual exercises of Saint Ignatius were approved by Pope Paul III with a brief of June 21, 1548. The printer Antonio Blado published the spiritual exercises in Rome on September 11, 1548. The first print run, of 500 copies, was financed by Francis Borgia. Throughout the 16th century, the Ignatian spiritual exercises were reissued in Rome and were also printed in 1553 in Coimbra, in 1574 in Burgos, in 1587 in Seville and in 1599 in Valencia.[154]

Between the end of 1550 and the beginning of 1551 Saint Ignatius gathered the Jesuits in Rome and resigned from office, but the resignation was not accepted by his companions.[155]

In February 1551 Saint Ignatius created on the Via d'Aracoeli in Rome a free college of grammar, humanities and Christian doctrine for Jesuits and external students. For this he had the financial support of Francis Borgia. In July this college moved to a building on the present-day Via del Gesù. Between 1582 and 1584 Pope Gregory XIII built a new seat for what was known as the Collegio Romano, which later became the Pontifical Gregorian University.[156]

In the summer of 1554 the Regent of Spain, Joanna of Austria, informed the Jesuits of Valladolid of her intention to enter the Society of Jesus. Saint Ignatius allowed it, and on January 1, 1555, Francis Borgia reported that he had obtained the commutation of the Poor Clare vow she had made. Joanna was grateful for her admission, defended the Society against the attacks of the Archbishop of Toledo Silíceo and of the Dominican Melchor Cano, and contributed 3,000 ducats to the College of San Antonio in Valladolid.[145][157]

The first Jesuits in the expansion of the Society of Jesus

In 1540 Faber was with Pedro Ortiz in Worms at a colloquy between Catholics and Protestants and, in 1541, at another colloquy of the same kind in Regensburg. Faber gave the spiritual exercises to Peter Canisius, who became a Jesuit. Faber then left for Spain with Ortiz.[158]

Faber returned to Germany and founded a college in Cologne, which had the support of the Carthusians.[159]

In 1541 Bobadilla arrived in Germany with Cardinal Juan Morone, but he was expelled in 1548 for criticizing the Augsburg Interim and returned to Rome.[158]

Claudio Jayo, for his part, arrived in Germany in 1541. Between 1545 and 1547 he was at the Council of Trent, sent by Cardinal Otto Truchsess von Waldburg.[160] Also at the Council of Trent were the Jesuits Diego Laínez, Alfonso Salmerón, Martín de Olabe[161] and Francisco Torres.[162]

In 1541 the Jesuits Salmerón and Broët were sent as apostolic nuncios to Ireland. Saint Ignatius wrote instructions for them. They failed within a few days because they met great opposition. They passed through Scotland and had an audience with James V, after which they returned to Rome.[163]

The Duke of Bavaria asked for help for his theological center, then in decline. Saint Ignatius sent Claude Jay, Alfonso Salmerón and Peter Canisius to Ingolstadt. They arrived in 1549. In 1550 Saint Ignatius sent Jay to Augsburg to take part in an imperial diet, at the request of Otto Truchsess. In 1551 Ferdinand I requested Jay to found a college in Vienna, which prospered.[160]

In 1556 Saint Ignatius founded the Jesuit provinces of Lower Germany and Upper Germany and appointed Peter Canisius superior of the latter. That same year Saint Ignatius ordered the founding of a college in Prague, to which Canisius went.[164]

Between 1545 and 1546 Simão Rodrigues wrote some Jesuit rules valid for Portugal. In 1542 the Jesuit college of Coimbra had been founded. However, for lack of good spiritual direction, some students practiced extreme penance while others led a very lax life. On May 7, 1547, Saint Ignatius addressed a letter to correct these students.[165]

In 1551 Saint Ignatius appointed Simão Rodrigues provincial of Aragon, but he refused to take up the post. He was summoned to Rome, where he was judged by four Jesuits and several penances were imposed on him as a sanction, from which Saint Ignatius exempted him. Even so, Rodrigues rebelled against the sentence and said that it was unjust. He even considered leaving the Society but, in the end, remained in it.[166]

The Jesuits went into crisis throughout Portugal, and Saint Ignatius wrote a new letter, addressed to all the Portuguese Jesuits, on March 23, 1553.[167]

Francis Borgia asked for a Jesuit college to be founded in Valencia, which was able to open in 1544 thanks to the financial support of the Valencian Jesuit Jerónimo Doménech. Then the college of Gandía was founded which, thanks to Francis Borgia, was raised to the rank of university in 1547, with the approval of Paul III.[168] During Saint Ignatius's lifetime the colleges of Barcelona and Valladolid (1545), Alcalá de Henares (1546), Salamanca (1548), Burgos (1550), Medina del Campo and Oñate (1551), Córdoba (1553), Ávila, Cuenca, Plasencia, Granada and Seville (1554), Murcia and Zaragoza (1555) and Monterrey (1556) were also founded.[169]

In 1547 Saint Ignatius created the Jesuit province of Spain. It was divided into those of Aragon and Castile in 1552 and was again divided into Castile, Aragon and Andalusia in 1554. Antonio de Araoz remained provincial of Castile, Francisco de Estrada was provincial of Aragon and Miguel de Torres provincial of Andalusia.[169]

In Italy 19 Jesuit colleges were founded during Saint Ignatius's lifetime. In 1551 the Jesuit province of Italy was created, under the provincial Broët, although the houses of Rome and Naples were directly in the charge of the General, Saint Ignatius.[170]

Henry II of France gave the Society legal recognition verbally in 1550 and in writing in 1551. However, this was not ratified by the French parliament, and the University of Paris also showed itself opposed to the establishment of the Jesuits there. Despite this, in 1554 there were 12 Jesuits living in Paris, in 1555 the province of France was erected with Paschase Broët as provincial, and in 1556 a college was founded in Billom thanks to the support of Bishop Guillermo Duprat.[171]

In 1553 Saint Ignatius created the Jesuit province of Brazil, with Manuel de Nóbrega as provincial. In this territory there were 30 Jesuits scattered across Pernambuco, Porto Seguro, Rio de Janeiro, São Vicente and Piratininga. In this last place they founded the College of São Paulo.[172]

Death

He died on July 31, 1556, in his cell at the headquarters of the Jesuits in Rome, as a consequence of a long illness related to the gallbladder.[173]

Writings

Editio princeps of the Spiritual Exercises in Latin, 1548.

Saint Ignatius of Loyola left the following writings:

  • Autobiography of Saint Ignatius of Loyola (on Wikisource)[174]
  • Directories of the Exercises: loose observations that clarify some point of the way of giving the Spiritual Exercises.
  • Form of the Society and Oblation: a text in which he relates the days of his election as General of the Society in 1541.
  • Deliberation on Poverty.
  • Spiritual Diary: motions received by Saint Ignatius between February 1544 and February 1545.
  • Constitutions of the Society of Jesus: the rulebook of the Society, written in 1544.
  • Rules of the Society of Jesus.
  • Letters and Instructions: correspondence written to various people between 1524 and 1556.

Patronages

Argentina

Saint Ignatius of Loyola is the patron saint of the city of Junín, Argentina, where the main Catholic church is the Mother Church of San Ignacio de Loyola. He is patron of the town of Luque, in the Province of Córdoba. He is patron of the City of San Ignacio Miní in Misiones.

On June 14, 1960, the Secretary of State for War of Argentina, on the proposal of the Inspectorate of Engineers (Secretaría de Guerra - Expte 165/60), resolved to designate Saint Ignatius of Loyola Patron of the Engineers Branch of the Argentine Army (BMP No. 3159, of the year 1960).[175]

Costa Rica

He is patron of the canton of Acosta in the San José Province, Costa Rica. In addition, the main town of Acosta bears the saint's name, San Ignacio de Acosta; this place is located 30 kilometers from the capital, San José.

Bolivia

He is patron of two municipalities: San Ignacio de Velasco in the Department of Santa Cruz and San Ignacio de Moxos in the Department of Beni. Prestigious schools in the City of La Paz, such as San Ignacio de Loyola and San Calixto, have the teachings of the Society of Jesus as their educational foundation.

Spain

He is the patron saint of the Spanish provinces of Gipuzkoa and Biscay.

In the 17th century a basilica was built in his name in his native town of Azpeitia (Gipuzkoa), as well as a conventual complex surrounding the house where he was born.

The itineraries of Saint Ignatius of Loyola at different times

In Deusto (a district of Bilbao, Biscay), a neighborhood and its metro station (San Inazio) are named in his memory.

Italy

In Rome his tomb is venerated in the Church of the Gesù, and in the 17th century, shortly after his canonization, a church in his name was built as the chapel of the Collegio Romano, which he himself had founded.

Mexico

He is the patron saint of the city of Guanajuato.[176]

He is patron of the Lázaro Cárdenas neighborhood in the municipality of Maravatío in Michoacán.

Paraguay

Saint Ignatius of Loyola is the patron saint of the city of San Ignacio Guazú, the first Jesuit reduction in the region.

Dominican Republic

Saint Ignatius of Loyola is the patron saint of San Ignacio de Sabaneta, head municipality of the Santiago Rodríguez Province.[177] In the town's main church, the devotees celebrate the novena every year in celebration of this saint's day.

Educational institutions

The number of educational institutions dedicated to the saint is proportional to the immense educational work carried out by the Society of Jesus.


Mexico

Present in Mexico under the name Universidad Iberoamericana, with campuses in Mexico City, León, Puebla, Tijuana and Torreón. It is part of the Association of Universities Entrusted to the Society of Jesus in Latin America (AUSJAL) and of the Jesuit University System. In the City of Guadalajara they have the ITESO (Instituto Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores de Occidente).

In the city of Santiago de Querétaro, the Autonomous University of Querétaro was founded on August 20, 1625, as the College of San Ignacio de Loyola, and was renamed UAQ on February 24, 1951.

In the port of Acapulco, Guerrero, the Loyola University of the Pacific was founded in 1992.

Peru

In the Viceroyalty of Peru, in Cuzco, there was a university of this name run by the Jesuits.

In Lima are the San Ignacio de Loyola University, the Colegio San Ignacio de Recalde and the Instituto San Ignacio de Loyola, which paradoxically bear the name of Ignatius but are not Jesuit institutions. The Antonio Ruiz de Montoya University and the Universidad del Pacífico, both based in Lima, are part of AUSJAL.

Succession

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Biografía en el sitio web oficial de la Compañía de Jesús de la provincia de Castilla. Archived 2013-11-14 at the Wayback Machine
  2. ↑ Juan del Carmelo. Mosaico espiritual, p. 13. Archived 2012-01-04 at the Wayback Machine
  3. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 249.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 144.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Compañía de Jesús en España. "Biografía de San Ignacio" (in español). Archived from the original on May 29, 2014. Retrieved May 29, 2014.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Iglesias, Ignacio (2000). "Ignacio de Loyola". In Leonardi, C.; Riccardi, A.; Zarri, G. (eds.). Diccionario de los Santos, volumen I (in español). Madrid: San Pablo. pp. 1055–1067. ISBN 84-285-2258-8.
  7. ↑ Hurlbut, Jesse Lyman (1999). Historia de la Iglesia cristiana (in español). Editorial Vida-Zondervan. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-829720-03-7.
  8. ↑ José Ignacio Tellechea, Ignacio de Loyola: la aventura de un cristiano, Sal Terrae, 1998, ISBN 9788429312591, p. 22.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 33–34.
  10. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 85 and 88-89.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 138–139.
  12. ↑ García Lomas, Juan M., ed. (1992). Ejercicios espirituales y mundo de hoy (in español). Santander: Sal Terrae. ISBN 84-293-1073-8.
  13. ↑ "Biografía en la Wiki Ignaciana" (in español). Archived from the original on May 15, 2009. Retrieved October 19, 2008.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 3.
  15. ↑ Longchamp 1996, p. 13.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 José Martínez de la Escalera, S. J. "San Ignacio de Loyola" (in español). Real Academia de la Historia. Retrieved June 9, 2023.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Gabriel María Verd Conradi (1978). "Apellidos modernos derivados de Enneco y Onneca (en castellano, gallego y vascuence)". Fontes linguae vasconum: Studia et documenta (in español) (29): 313–338. ISSN 0046-435X.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 "Eneko (masculino)" (in español). Euskaltzaindia. Real Academia de la Lengua Vasca. Retrieved June 9, 2023.
  19. ↑ Fidel Fita Colomé, S. J. (May 1893). "Cartas de San Ignacio de Loyola en la Exposición histórico-europea de Madrid". Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia (in español). 22.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Joseph N. Tylenda, S. J. (2001) [1985]. "Introducción". A Pilgrim's Journey: The Autobiography of Ignatius of Loyola. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. p. 14. ISBN 0-89870-810-9.
  21. ↑ Rogelio García Mateo S. J. (2003). "Ignacio de Loyola, la Escuela de Salamanca y América: José de Acosta" (PDF). Cuadernos salmantinos de filosofía. Ejemplar dedicado a: La Escuela de Salamanca y el Pensamiento Iberoamericano: teoría y praxis (in español) (30): 439–448. ISSN 0210-4857.
  22. ↑ Cándido Pozo, S. J. (1990). "San Ignacio de Loyola y la Teología". Archivo Teológico Granadino (in español) (53): 5–47.
  23. ↑ De Dalmases 1979, p. 3.
  24. ↑ D. E. Aguado, ed. (1864). Cartas de San Ignacio de Loyola (in español). Vol. 1. Madrid. pp. 15, 33, 72, 98, 57, 180.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  25. ↑ Monumenta Ignatiana, ex autographis vel ex antiquioribus exemplis collecta, series prima Sancti Ignatii de Loyola Societatis Jesu fundatoris epistolae et instructiones (in Latina). Vol. 22. Apud Istitum historicum S. I. 1964. p. 73.
  26. ↑ Federico Ortés (2002). "Prólogo". El triunfo de Don Quijote. Cervantes y la Compañía de Jesús: un mensaje cifrado (in español). 9788493243920. ISBN 9788493243920.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Federico Ortés (2004). "Don Quijote peregrino en compañía" (PDF). Peregrinamente peregrinos: actas del V Congreso Internacional de la Asociación de Cervantistas, Lisboa, Fundaçâo Calouste Gulbenkian, 1-5 septiembre 2003 (in español). 2: 1591–1626. ISBN 84-609-0353-2.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN (link)
  28. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 7.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 García Hernán, Enrique (2015). Eliseo Serrano (ed.). "Ignacio de Loyola y su familia" (PDF). Erasmo y España: 75 años de la obra de Marcel Bataillon (1937- 2012) (in español). Institución Fernando el Católico: 103–122.
  30. ↑ Areitio, Daniel de (1957). "Nuevos datos sobre el abuelo materno de san Ignacio de Loyola". Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu (in español). XXVI (52): 218–229.
  31. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 9–10.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 10–11.
  33. ↑ Grupo de Espiritualidad Ignaciana (2007). "Ignacio de Loyola". Diccionario de Espiritualidad Ignaciana (in español). Ediciones Mensajero y Editorial Sal Terrae. p. 975. ISBN 978-84-293-1707-7.
  34. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 21.
  35. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 25.
  36. ↑ Tellechea, José Ignacio, Ignacio de Loyola, la aventura de un cristiano, Sal Terrae, 1998, ISBN 9788429312591, p. 15.
  37. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 26.
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  42. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 29.
  43. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 28.
  44. ↑ Longchamp 1996, p. 16-17.
  45. ↑ Francisco de Borja Medina Rojas S. J. (2012). "Los delictos calificados y muy henormes de Íñigo de Loyola: notas al llamado Proceso de Azpeitia de 1515, estudio documental". Archivum historicum Societatis Iesu (in español). 81 (1): 3–71.
  46. ↑ Francisco de Borja Medina S. J. (1992). "Cuando el servía en la corte del rey católico ¿Estuvo Iñigo de Loyola en Sevilla?" (PDF). Boletín de la Real Academia Sevillana de Buenas Letras: Minervae Baeticae (in español) (20): 19–56.
  47. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 30–31.
  48. ↑ Telesforo Gómez Rodríguez (1891). "Levantamiento de Arévalo contra su dación por Carlos V en señorío a Doña Germana de Foix y primera campaña militar de San Ignacio de Loyola". Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia (in español). 19: 5–18.
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  52. ↑ Bixente Serrano Izko. Navarra. Las tramas de la historia, ISBN 84-932845-9-9.
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  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 36.
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 37.
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  58. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 39–40.
  59. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 40–41.
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  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 46–47.
  66. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 48.
  67. ↑ "Capella del Rapte i antic hospital de Santa Llúcia" (in català). Ayuntamiento de Manresa. Retrieved June 17, 2023.
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 P. M. Quera S. J. (1956). "El Rapto de San Ignacio en Manresa" (PDF). Estudios Eclesiásticos (in español). 15. Madrid: 27–44.
  69. ↑ "Cruz del Tort" (in español). Ayuntamiento de Manresa. Retrieved June 17, 2023.
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  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 72.2 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 72.
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 60–61.
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  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 66.
  78. ↑ Vítores González 2019, pp. 60–61.
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  82. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 74.
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  86. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 80.
  87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 81.
  88. ↑ 88.0 88.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 82.
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  102. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 98.
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  104. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 99.
  105. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 104.
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  107. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 101.
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  109. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 108.
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  111. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 110–111.
  112. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 114–115.
  113. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 116–117.
  114. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 118.
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  116. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 120.
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  118. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 103.
  119. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 121–123.
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  121. ↑ 121.0 121.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 128.
  122. ↑ 122.0 122.1 122.2 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 124.
  123. ↑ 123.0 123.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 125.
  124. ↑ 124.0 124.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 126.
  125. ↑ 125.0 125.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 127.
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  127. ↑ 127.0 127.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 130.
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  132. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 135.
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  135. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 138.
  136. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 139.
  137. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 141.
  138. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 143.
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  141. ↑ 141.0 141.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 226.
  142. ↑ Sito ufficiale della Chiesa del Gesù - Roma. "Cappella di Sant'Ignazio" (in italiano). Retrieved April 16, 2016.
  143. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 148–150.
  144. ↑ 144.0 144.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 153.
  145. ↑ 145.0 145.1 145.2 Wenceslao Soto Artuñedo (1997). "Ignacio de Loyola y la mujer". Proyección: Teología y mundo actual (in español) (187): 299–318. ISSN 0478-6378.
  146. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 155.
  147. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 156–157.
  148. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 157.
  149. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 157–158.
  150. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 160–161.
  151. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 199–200.
  152. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 202–204.
  153. ↑ Wenceslao Soto Artuñedo (2009). "AMDG". Revista Jesuitas (in español) (100): 24–25.
  154. ↑ "Versiones y ediciones de los Ejercicios Espirituales de San Ignacio. México, 1596-1856". Revista de historia de América (in español) (160). Cuidad de México. January–June 2021.
  155. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 204.
  156. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 158–160.
  157. ↑ Javier Burrieza Sánchez (2000). "Los años fundacionales de la Compañía de Jesús en Valladolid". Hispania sacra (in español). 52 (105): 139–162. ISSN 0018-215X.
  158. ↑ 158.0 158.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 163.
  159. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 164.
  160. ↑ 160.0 160.1 José García de Castro Valdés. "Claudio Jayo (Vulliet Ca.1504-Viena 1552): compañero, teólogo, apóstol". Estudios eclesiásticos: Revista de investigación e información teológica y canónica (in español). 80 (314). ISSN 0210-1610.
  161. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 174.
  162. ↑ Javier Burrieza Sánchez. "Francisco Torres" (in español). Real Academia de la Historia. Retrieved June 17, 2023.
  163. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 171–172.
  164. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 165.
  165. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 178.
  166. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 179–180.
  167. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 179.
  168. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 175.
  169. ↑ 169.0 169.1 De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 176.
  170. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 182.
  171. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, pp. 184–185.
  172. ↑ De Dalmases Jordana 1979, p. 192.
  173. ↑ Auñamendi Eusko Entziklopedia. Ignacio de Loyola. Accessed October 9, 2015
  174. ↑ Autobiografía de San Ignacio de Loyola on Wikisource
  175. ↑ "Patrono del Arma de Ingenieros". www.comisioningenieros.mil.ar (in español). Archived from the original on July 4, 2019. Retrieved June 16, 2019.
  176. ↑ Quanaxhuato.com, ed. (November 9, 2011). "San Ignacio de Loyola, patrón de la ciudad de Guanajuato" (in español). Retrieved August 3, 2016.
  177. ↑ Hoy Digital, ed. (January 23, 2005). "Santiago Rodríguez, la capital del casabe" (in español). Santo Domingo, República Dominicana. Retrieved July 25, 2017.

Bibliography

  • De Dalmases Jordana, Cándido (1979). El padre maestro Ignacio (in español). Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos. ISBN 84-220-0938-2.
  • Longchamp, Albert (1996) [1990]. Vida de san Ignacio de Loyola (in español) (3rd ed.). San Pablo. ISBN 84-285-1351-1.
  • Vítores González, Artemio (2019). El Cenáculo, el Monte Sión cristiano (in español). Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing Press.
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