Argentina

Argentine Republic^{[lower-alpha 1]}
Argentine Republic
	Flag Coat of arms
	Motto: En Unión y Libertad; "In Union and Freedom"
	Anthem: Himno Nacional Argentino; "Argentine National Anthem"; File:Himno Nacional Argentino instrumental.ogg
	Territory controlled by the Argentine Republic in dark green; territory claimed but not controlled in light green.
Capital	Buenos Aires Coat of arms of the City of Buenos Aires; Population: 2,890,151; 34°40′S 58°24′W / 34.667°S 58.400°W
Largest city	Buenos Aires Coat of arms of the City of Buenos Aires
Official languages	Spanish
Recognised regional languages	Guarani (co-official in Corrientes); Qom, Mocoví and Wichí (co-official in Chaco)
Spoken languages	Languages of Argentina
Demonym	Argentine
Member of	UN, OAS, Mercosur, CIN, IAEA, WTO, CAN, CAF, IMF, G-15, G-20, G24, G-77, ALADI, IDB, IFC, UNCTAD, UNIDO, OLADE, Interpol, WHO, UNESCO, OEI, ABINIA, WIPO, UNWTO, ICAO, IMO, ITU, UPU, WMO, CELAC, Pacific Alliance, LG, ILO, ATS, G-20-WTO, CTBTO, UNDP, ICC, PROSUR.
Government	Presidential federal republic
• President	Javier Milei
• Vice President	Victoria Villarruel
• Chief of the Cabinet of Ministers	Guillermo Francos
• President of the Supreme Court	Horacio Rosatti
Independence from Spain
• May Revolution	May 25, 1810
• Declared	July 9, 1816
• Constitution	May 1, 1853
• Recognized	July 9, 1859
• Current constitution	August 24, 1994
Area
• Total	2,780,400 km2 (1,073,500 sq mi) (8th)
• Water (%)	1.1
Population
• 2022 census	46,044,703 (31st)
GDP (PPP)	2024 estimate
• Total	USD 1,244,646 million (31st)
• Per capita	USD 26,389 ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita\|69th]])
GDP (nominal)	2024 estimate
• Total	USD 604,260 million (decrease) (24th)
• Per capita	USD 12,811 (decrease) ([[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita\|70th]])
Gini (2022)	40.7; medium inequality (medium)
HDI (2022)	0.849; very high (48th · very high)
Currency	Peso ($) ([[ISO 4217\|ARS]])
Time zone	UTC−3 (UTC−3)
Calling code	+54
ISO 3166 code	032/ARG/AR
Internet TLD	.ar
	Land borders: 11,968 km · Coastline: 4,989 km · Aircraft registration prefix: LQ, LV · Vehicle registration code: RA · Radio call sign prefix: AYA-AZZ, LOA-LWZ, L2A-L9Z

Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic,^{[lower-alpha 10]} is a sovereign country in South America, located in the far south and southeast of that subcontinent. It adopts a republican, democratic, representative and federal form of government. It is organized as a decentralized federal state, made up of twenty-three provinces and the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires, the Federal Capital of the country.^[9]^{[lower-alpha 11]} The member states declare their adherence to the National Constitution, which governs their principles as a Republic, and enjoy powers of full autonomy extending to the executive, legislative and judicial branches and to the municipalities into which they are subdivided. They retain powers such as their own flag, security force and charter, as well as ownership of the natural resources within their jurisdiction, while delegating exclusive competences to the Federal Government.^[10]^[11]

Its vast territory covers a large part of the Southern Cone, bordering Bolivia and Paraguay to the north, Brazil to the northeast, Uruguay and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and Chile and the Atlantic waters of the Sea of Hoces to the west and continental south.

It is the country with the second-highest Human Development Index (HDI) in the region, behind its neighbor Chile.^[12]^[13] It applies public health and education models that guarantee free, universal and quality access.^[14] It has a literacy rate among people over 15 years of age above 99%,^[15]^[16] and its medical and hospital coverage is evenly distributed according to population size.^[17]

In recent decades it has suffered a sluggish recession in growth indicators, the result of successive financial crises and new political reconfigurations. Nevertheless, its economy is the second most developed and important in South America, behind Brazil, and the 24th richest on the planet by nominal GDP. It ranks among the largest food producers in the world and is considered a regional power.^[18]

With benchmark scientific and technological development, it is the Latin American country with the most Nobel Prize laureates, five in total, three of them in the sciences. Its mastery of nuclear and space technology has enabled it to design, build and export satellites, radars, nuclear reactors, combat aircraft and helicopters, and to be a producer of automobiles, software, biotechnology, medical equipment, agricultural machinery, etc.^[19]^[20]^[21]

Argentina is part of the G20, a bloc that brings together the richest and most industrialized nations on the planet, and is a founding member of Mercosur, the United Nations, the Organization of American States and the NICs, or newly industrialized countries.^[22]

Its bicontinental territory covers an area of 2,780,400 km²;^[3] it is the largest Spanish-speaking country on the planet, the second largest in Latin America and the eighth largest in the world, if only the continental area under effective sovereignty is considered. Its continental shelf, recognized by the UN in 2016, reaches 6,581,500 km²,^[23] making it one of the largest in the world,^[24] extending from the American continent to the South Pole in Antarctica, across the South Atlantic. If the Malvinas Islands, South Georgia, the South Sandwich Islands and numerous other smaller islands are counted (administered by the United Kingdom, but with sovereignty in dispute), plus a portion of the Antarctic area called Argentine Antarctica south of parallel 60° S, over which Argentina claims sovereignty, the area rises to 3,761,274 km².^[25] It is one of the twenty nations with a continuous presence in Antarctica and has the largest number of permanent bases, with six in total.

Its territory brings together a great diversity of climates, caused by a latitudinal range exceeding 30° (including several geoastronomical zones), a difference in altitude ranging from 107 m below sea level (Laguna del Carbón) to nearly 7,000 m above sea level, and the length of the maritime coastline, which reaches 4,725 km. Broad humid plains border vast deserts and high mountains, while the presence of tropical and subtropical climates in the north contrasts with the snowfalls and extreme cold in the mountain areas and the south.

The first records of inhabitants in present-day Argentine territory date back thirteen thousand years BP, during the Paleoamerican period. In protohistoric times, the pre-Columbian period, it was inhabited by numerous indigenous peoples, some of whom still live in the country, among them the Guaycurú, Guaraní, Mapuche, Tehuelche and Diaguita, the latter forming part of the Inca Empire. The Spanish conquest of present-day Argentine territory began with exploratory voyages from 1512, the establishment of a settlement in 1528 and the distribution of the territory among the adelantados. Later, it came under the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1776, the Spanish Crown founded the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, which would be a political entity preceding the present-day Argentine Republic. On May 25, 1810, the viceregal system was replaced, deposing the last Viceroy who governed from Buenos Aires,^[26] and thus the First Junta of government was organized, acting autonomously and refusing to recognize the Regency Council of Spain. On July 9, 1816, independence was proclaimed in San Miguel de Tucumán.^[27]

Toponymy

The official name of the country is the Argentine Republic (República Argentina), literally "Republic of the Plata." By ellipsis, it is usually called "la Argentina." Use without the article is very widespread and is not considered incorrect,^[28] although the Argentine Academy of Letters has described it as "reprehensible."^[29]

Argentina is the feminine form of the poetic adjective "argentino," which denotes something that has the qualities of silver or is related to it,^[30] from the Latin argentum, meaning "silver."^[31] Argentum, in turn, comes from Proto-Italic *argentom, derived from Proto-Indo-European *h₂r̥ǵn̥tóm, a noun formed from the adjective *h₂erǵ-, meaning "white" or "shining."^[32]^[33]^[34]^[35]

Argentina was a poetic name for the countries along the banks of the Plata,^[36] a river so called because it was a route of access to the silver deposits of Upper Peru, where the city of La Plata (Charcas, present-day Sucre) was also called Civitas Argentina (Argentine City).^[37]

Its use as a toponym, albeit with a different declension, first appears in 1554 on the map by Lopo Homem, where the territories of the coastal region are called Terra Argentea.^[38] Later, Martín del Barco Centenera chose it, in imitation of La Araucana (1569), as the title of an epic poem about the conquest: La Argentina (1602).^[28] From then until the end of the 18th century, Argentina and argentino were literary names for the territory and the inhabitants of the Río de la Plata region.^[28]

With the creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata and its subsequent independence as the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, Argentina and argentino became more common, although sometimes with a connotation restricted to Buenos Aires and the nearby provinces.^[28]

The Constitution of 1826 used Argentina as the official name of the State and, from then on, despite the rejection of that constitution, it was used habitually. From the 1830s, Rosas, formally governor of Buenos Aires, was the "person in charge of conducting the foreign relations of the Argentine Republic."^[37]

The Argentine constitutional reform of 1860 enacted as Article 35 the provision establishing the official names of the country, in force ever since:

The names successively adopted from 1810 to the present, namely: United Provinces of the Río de la Plata; Argentine Republic, Argentine Confederation, shall henceforth be official names, used interchangeably, for the designation of the Government and territory of the provinces, the words "Argentine Nation" being employed in the drafting and enactment of laws.

In 1860, in the city of Paraná, then capital of the Argentine Confederation, President Santiago Derqui decreed that, in order to "standardize administrative acts," Argentine Republic would always be used.^[39] Two years later, in 1862, Bartolomé Mitre, the first president of the reunified country, referred to his office as President of the Argentine Nation.^[40]

History

Pre-Hispanic period

Spanish conquest and colonization

Independence

First Government Junta

The First Government Junta, officially the Provisional Governing Junta of the Provinces of the Río de la Plata in the name of Señor Don Ferdinand VII, was the Government junta that arose on Friday, May 25, 1810, in Buenos Aires, capital of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, as a consequence of the triumph of the May Revolution, which removed the Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros and named Cornelio Saavedra as president of the First Junta of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata. The seat of government was established in the Fort of Buenos Aires, which had served since 1776 as the residence of the Viceroys and where the Government House stands today. The First Junta existed as such until December 18 of the same year, since with the incorporation of deputies from the interior it was transformed into the Junta Grande, which gave rise to the prolonged War of Independence of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata against Spain (1810–1824).

While the war of independence was being fought, a complex dispute was also taking place over the form of organization of the new State, which in 1814 led to the start of a civil war that—intermittently—would last more than half a century. The leader of the federal faction, the Oriental José Gervasio Artigas, was proclaimed Protector of the Union of the Free Peoples, a league of provinces that refused to be administered by the unitarian government of Buenos Aires. This league organized the so-called Congress of Oriente in Concepción del Uruguay, about which it is still debated whether it managed to proclaim—as it intended—independence from Spain.^[41]

On July 9, 1816, in the city of San Miguel de Tucumán, the congress of deputies of the provinces of the northwest and center-west of the country and of Buenos Aires, together with some exiled deputies from Upper Peru,^{[lower-alpha 12]} proclaimed the independence of the United Provinces in South America, using the following formula:^[42]

[…] to recover the rights of which they were despoiled, and to invest themselves with the high character of a nation free and independent of King Ferdinand VII, his successors and metropolis […]^{[lower-alpha 13]}

In various parts of South America the new governments had to face the counterrevolutionary resistance of the royalist armies, which sought to restore the authority of the Spanish monarchy in the region. The wars of independence began. Some of the main commanders were Manuel Belgrano, in command of the Army of the North; José de San Martín, creator of the Army of the Andes; Martín Miguel de Güemes, organizer of the Gaucho War; and Juana Azurduy, Commander of the guerrilla war in Upper Peru. The Argentine State regards San Martín as the greatest military hero of its independence and honors him with the title of "Father of the Nation". Together with Simón Bolívar, they were the chief figures responsible for the pro-independence wars that ended the Spanish presence on the continent.

The formation of the federal State

The first decades as an independent country were turbulent: in the face of the hegemony of the unitarians, the federalists repeatedly rose up in defense of the autonomy of the provinces, leading—after the so-called Anarchy of the Year XX—to the division of the country into autonomous provinces generally governed by military caudillos, while the country—except for a brief interval between 1825 and 1827—lacked a national government until 1852. Each province assumed full government within its own territory.

The war of independence continued until 1825, but it was fought mainly on the northern frontier and in Peru. Meanwhile, the Oriental Province was invaded by the Kingdom of Portugal, from which it passed to the Empire of Brazil. The resulting war with Brazil ended with the Preliminary Peace Convention of 1828, which declared the disputed territory independent under the name of Oriental State of Uruguay.^[43] Shortly before, in 1825, Upper Peru formed the Republic of Bolivia, and the following year the city of Tarija and its jurisdiction were added to it.

The remaining territory—which had managed to increase its territorial control somewhat through some successful military campaigns against the indigenous peoples—began to use the name "Argentina" officially in the mid-1820s. The official denomination "United Provinces of the Río de la Plata" is still considered, constitutionally, an alternative name for the country, although it has fallen into practical disuse.^[44]

In the early 1830s, the federalists managed to triumph throughout the country, which adopted the name of Argentine Confederation. For more than twenty years, the federal governor of Buenos Aires, Juan Manuel de Rosas, in practice assumed the highest national authority, although in theory he was only the holder of the external representation of the provinces as a whole.^[45]

During the period of his hegemony he fought and defeated successive uprisings by the unitarians,^{[lower-alpha 14]} a blockade of the Río de la Plata by France, and later another joint blockade by Great Britain and France. He also waged wars against the Peru–Bolivian Confederation and against the so-called Government of the Defense of Montevideo, the Uruguayan capital, owing to the interference of that country's two parties—the Blancos and the Colorados—in the Argentine civil wars.

Despite the peace he was able to impose and the economic growth—at least of the Littoral provinces—Rosas's enemies demanded individual, political and expressive freedoms, which were harshly suppressed by the Buenos Aires governor; the core of their demands was the enactment of a political constitution that would formally organize the national State and guarantee the rights of citizens.

National Organization

In 1852, Rosas was defeated at the Battle of Caseros by the Grand Army, an alliance of the provinces of Entre Ríos and Corrientes, the Colorado troops of Uruguay, and others from Brazil. The alliance was led by the anti-Rosas federalist Justo José de Urquiza, governor of Entre Ríos, who assumed the provisional presidency.^[46]

This period lasted until the enactment of a Constitution in 1853, which, with some changes, has governed the country to the present day. It adopted a federal regime, but the Province of Buenos Aires seceded from the Argentine Confederation, which had to establish its capital in the city of Paraná. In 1859, the Confederation defeated Buenos Aires at the Battle of Cepeda, forcing it to sign the Pact of San José de Flores, by which Buenos Aires rejoined what from then on came to be called the Argentine Republic. Nevertheless, definitive reunification was achieved under the leadership of Buenos Aires after the Battle of Pavón (1861), during the presidency of Bartolomé Mitre.

In 1865, Argentina again became involved in a civil war in Uruguay, to which Paraguay responded by occupying the City of Corrientes. After signing a Triple Alliance with Brazil and Uruguay,^[47] Argentina took part in the War of the Triple Alliance against Paraguay, which lasted five years and required the participation of ten thousand Argentine soldiers.^[48] Paraguay was finally defeated in 1870, left completely devastated and with a large part of its male population dead.^[49] Despite its enormous cost in money and human lives, and although it caused the continuation of the civil wars in Argentina, the country managed to consolidate its borders in the northeast, as the frontier was fixed on the Pilcomayo, Paraguay and Paraná rivers.^[49]

During the presidencies of Mitre and above all of Sarmiento and Avellaneda, Argentina entered the world economy as an agro-exporting country, sustained by an extensive railway network and the advance of the educational system. After two bloody revolutions in 1874 and 1880, in the latter year the city of Buenos Aires was federalized and a lasting balance was established between the provinces and the capital.

Conservative governments and first Radical governments

Between 1878 and 1884 the so-called Conquest of the Desert and Conquest of the Chaco took place, with the aim of ending the constant clashes between indigenous peoples and criollos on the frontier and of seizing the indigenous territories, tripling Argentine territory. The first conquest, promoted by Julio A. Roca, consisted of a series of military incursions into the Pampas and Patagonian territories controlled by the native peoples, which were then distributed among the members of the Rural Society, the financiers of the expeditions.^[50] The conquest of the Chaco lasted until the end of the century,^[51] since its full incorporation into the national economic system only took place when the mere extraction of timber and tannin was replaced by the production of cotton. The Argentine government regarded the indigenous peoples as inferior beings, without the same rights as criollos and Europeans.^[52]

Between 1880 and 1916, the National Autonomist Party (PAN) monopolized power on the basis of fraudulent elections, facilitated by the system of the spoken vote, and for 25 years the dominant figure was General Julio Argentino Roca. The so-called Conservative Republic or Oligarchic Republic organized a successful and modern agro-export model based on the so-called international division of labor imposed by the British Empire, oriented mainly toward the production of meat and grain for the British market. In the traditional narrative the country was seen at that time as "the granary of the world".^[53]

This economic model generated a concentration of wealth in few hands and the social exclusion of the working classes and of the populations settled outside the Pampas region. The economy reached high levels of growth that attracted a great wave of immigration, mainly made up of millions of Italians and Spaniards and, to a lesser extent, followed by Eastern Europeans and Western Asians. The Argentine population, which represented 0.13% of the world population in 1869, would come to represent 0.55% in 1930, a proportion at which it has remained roughly stable ever since.^[54]

The prosperity of the economy drove the growth of a considerable middle class, made up mostly of immigrants or their descendants. European immigrants also introduced new political ideas into the country, such as socialism and anarchism, and took part, together with the local population, especially the Afro-Argentine population, in the creation of mutual aid organizations and trade unions.^[55]^[56] Modern political parties emerged, such as the Radical Civic Union (UCR) and the Socialist Party (PS).

After more than two decades of political and social conflict, electoral fraud and serious acts of repression, in 1912 the Sáenz Peña Law was enacted, establishing secret, compulsory and universal suffrage for male voters. In the first presidential election with secret suffrage, the conservatives were displaced from power by the Radicals led by Hipólito Yrigoyen, who was President from 1916 to 1922 and from 1928 to 1930. During his first government, the student movement known as the University Reform began, which spread throughout Latin America, and the workers' massacres of the Tragic Week and the Rebel Patagonia took place. Between Yrigoyen's two governments, the fellow Radical Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear was elected President.

Alternation between coups d'état and democratic regimes

Hipólito Yrigoyen, first president elected by universal and secret male suffrage (1916–1922 and 1928–1930). His overthrow marked the beginning of a series of recurring coups d'état between 1930 and 1976.

Victims of the Bombing of Plaza de Mayo in 1955.

On September 6, 1930, the first of a series of coups d'état in Argentina took place, leading a civic-military group to establish a dictatorship justified by the Supreme Court as a "de facto government", after overthrowing Hipólito Yrigoyen. This coup d'état began a sequence of fraudulent governments known as the Infamous Decade.^{[lower-alpha 15]}

The Argentine agro-export model went into crisis owing to the closing of international markets caused by the Crisis of 1929. The country promoted a process of import substitution that developed a large industrial sector.^[57] The Infamous Decade was overthrown by the Revolution of '43, a second coup d'état that installed a military government within which an alliance would form between trade unions and some military officers, giving rise to Peronism. Despite pressure from the United States from the time that country entered the war at the end of 1941 when it was attacked by Japan, Argentina remained neutral during most of the rest of World War II, joining the Allies on March 27, 1945, during the government of General Edelmiro Farrell, shortly before the end of the War.

In 1946 Juan Domingo Perón was elected President with the support of the trade unions organized in the Labour Party. Perón, accompanied by his wife Evita, led a new movement that placed emphasis on social justice, political sovereignty and economic independence. Under his government women's suffrage was established in 1947, as well as the equality of men and women in family law, the equality of children born within or outside marriage, and free university education; malaria was eradicated, etc.^[58]

Through the Eva Perón Foundation, social assistance unprecedented in the country was developed, providing economic support to the most vulnerable sectors. The railways and foreign trade were also nationalized, and a strong process of industrialization was generated, promoting heavy industry.

In 1951 Perón was reelected for a new presidential term with 63.40% of the vote in what constituted the first election with universal suffrage of men and women in Argentina. In 1952 Evita died. Almost 60 years later, she would be declared the Woman of the Bicentennial, as the symbol of the leading role of women in Argentine history.^[58] Peronism enjoyed broad support among the population, but also strong rejection from opposition sectors, polarizing Argentine society into Peronists and anti-Peronists. Its policies harmed British interests, dominant until then in the economy, which supported the opposition.^[59] The beginning of a conflict with the Catholic Church weakened the loyalty of vast sectors to the government and unified the opposition.^[60]

On June 16, 1955, a civic-military conspiracy, using some thirty aircraft of the Navy and the Air Force, bombed and machine-gunned the population of Buenos Aires in the Plaza de Mayo and other places.^[61] This attack produced 308 officially identified victims—among them 111 union activists, including 23 women—a number of dead who could not be identified owing to mutilation, and more than 700 wounded.^[62]

In September Perón was overthrown by a new coup calling itself the Liberating Revolution, which banned Peronism, many of whose supporters were imprisoned or shot, earning the coup regime the nickname "Shooting Revolution" (Revolución Fusiladora). Perón was forced into exile until the end of the ban in 1973.^[59]

During the ban, Peronism would continue to have influence in politics and in the trade union movement—a sphere in which it won most of the elections—denying legitimacy to the authorities installed by non-democratic means and carrying out an opposition activity known as the Peronist Resistance.

In 1958 Arturo Frondizi (UCRI) was elected president in elections with Peronism banned, but after making an electoral pact with Perón; he was overthrown by a new military coup in 1962. This time the coup had the peculiarity that power was assumed by the civilian José María Guido, named president by the Supreme Court of Justice that same day after the overthrow and arrest of Frondizi, citing a power vacuum as grounds for his appointment. Although Guido formally held the presidency, real power lay in the military sphere. During his term the confrontations between two factions of the Argentine Army, known as the Blues and Reds, intensified, reaching the point of armed clashes. The victory of the "Blue" sector allowed General Juan Carlos Onganía to reunify the Army.

With Peronism still banned and former president Frondizi detained,^[63] in 1963 Arturo Umberto Illia (UCRP) was elected head of state; he too would be deposed by a military coup in 1966, which brought Onganía to power.

His dictatorship, the first of the three that made up the self-styled Argentine Revolution (1966–1973), was also the first permanent dictatorship installed within the framework of the military regimes that multiplied in Latin America with the active support of the United States through the School of the Americas and the doctrine of national security in the global context of the Cold War. The abolition of political activity and state terrorism provoked an insurrectionary state among the population, manifested in the appearance of several guerrilla organizations—such as Montoneros, the FAR and the ERP—and a large number of insurrectionary popular uprisings, such as the Cordobazo, the Rosariazo and the Tucumanazo, among others.^[64] Cornered by the popular insurrection, the dictatorship organized an electoral exit with the participation of Peronism—though preventing Perón's candidacy.

In 1973 Peronism was legalized and triumphed in the presidential elections, beginning what has come to be called Third Peronism. After the resignation of President Héctor José Cámpora that same year, Juan Domingo Perón was elected President for the third time, thus precipitating his death nine months later. He was succeeded by his vice president and wife, María Estela Martínez de Perón. This period was characterized by an accelerated deterioration of the internal situation, a product of the 1973 oil crisis and widespread political violence, including the organization from within the government of a parapolice force called the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (Triple A), which, together with the police and military forces, murdered hundreds of opponents from 1973 onward—several of them "detained-disappeared"—as well as the installation of clandestine detention centers within the framework of the repression ordered by the so-called Annihilation decrees.^[65]

On March 24, 1976, a new military coup took place that installed a new permanent dictatorship calling itself the National Reorganization Process, which would last almost eight years and would be internationally coordinated with the other South American dictatorships through Plan Condor, under the protection of the United States. During it a regime of state terrorism was imposed that carried out a systematic plan of kidnapping, torture and elimination of opponents, classified by the courts as genocide, causing thousands of disappeared and hundreds of children who suffered the suppression of their identity.

In response, human rights organizations were formed, such as the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo and the Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo, which would play a crucial role in the "trial and punishment of the guilty" and in the recovery of the kidnapped babies whose identity had been suppressed. The trade union movement also put up strong resistance, going so far as to declare several general strikes, despite the disappearances that massively affected it, the dissolution of the CGT and the government takeover of the unions.

The dictatorship had the active support of the main business groups, which occupied key government positions, as well as of the International Monetary Fund, multinational companies, the main press outlets, along with prominent journalists and communicators. The economic plan followed the guidelines of the Chicago School—frequently identified with neoliberalism. An important sector of the population supported the dictatorship, while another sector resisted it through guerrilla action, the creation of human rights organizations such as the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, or union action and strikes.

The foreign debt, which would constrain the democratic governments from 1983 onward, rose from 7,700 million dollars in 1976 to 45,000 million dollars in 1983, in many cases as a result of criminal operations benefiting economic groups and multinational companies.

In 1978, a serious crisis occurred with Chile over the borders in the Beagle Channel area, which brought both countries to the brink of war. In 1982 the Malvinas War was fought with the United Kingdom; the Argentine defeat was one of the factors that led to the collapse of the military regime and to the call for general elections for the following year.

Return of democracy

Democratic government was restored on December 10, 1983. The new president was Raúl Alfonsín, of the Radical Civic Union, who ordered the investigation of the dictatorship's crimes against humanity by creating the Conadep, a body that produced a decisive report titled Nunca más. Nine of the ten members of the first three military juntas were put on trial and some of them convicted, although also under his mandate and owing to military pressure the impunity laws began to be enacted. In 1984 the border dispute with Chile over the Beagle Channel was brought to an end. In 1985 he agreed with the new democratic president of Brazil, José Sarney, to begin the process of regional integration that would materialize in 1991 under the name of Mercosur.

After the 1989 presidential elections, and with the country's governability affected by a hyperinflationary process, Alfonsín was forced to leave the Presidency and hand over power six months early.^[66] Carlos Menem of the Justicialist Party took office. With a prominent role played by minister Domingo Cavallo, he halted inflation through a convertibility regime and carried out a broad process of privatization, deregulation, economic opening and foreign borrowing, in line with the Washington Consensus of 1989 and with the support of the IMF. Socially, mass unemployment appeared and crime rose sharply, both becoming central problems on the political agenda.^[67] In 1991 Argentina went to war against Iraq without the authorization of the National Congress, as part of the coalition led by the United States.^[68] In 1992 and 1994 it suffered two major terrorist attacks, against the Israeli embassy and against the AMIA, with 23 and 85 dead respectively, without the perpetrators being discovered, in investigations with many irregularities.^[69] The border dispute with Chile over 481 km² located in the Lago del Desierto area was resolved. In 1994 a pact between Alfonsín and Menem allowed the reform of the Constitution, and the following year Menem was reelected. An operation of arms trafficking to Ecuador and Croatia caused the blowing up of the armaments factory of Río Tercero, damaging the city, causing seven deaths and seriously affecting relations with Peru.^[70] Social conflicts and strikes increased, with popular uprisings and road blockades breaking out that gave rise to the piquetero movement.^[71] In 1998 a period of recession began that lasted four years and culminated in the worst crisis in Argentine history.^[72]

In December 1999 Fernando de la Rúa of the Radical Civic Union, which at the time was part of the Alliance, assumed the presidency. He took measures to reduce the public deficit—among them the reduction of pensions—and to make labor rights more flexible, following the indications of the IMF.^[73] The economic and social crisis worsened and the government appointed President Menem's former minister, Domingo Cavallo, who ordered the freezing of bank deposits (a measure known as "the Corralito"), which culminated in a generalized social insurrection, with dozens of killings by the repressive forces, leading to the resignation of the President on December 20, 2001.^[74]^[75] During two weeks of uncertainty several presidents succeeded one another, among them the brief government of Adolfo Rodríguez Saá, during which the country went into default by declaring a moratorium on the foreign debt.^[75]^[76]

On January 2, 2002, the Legislative Assembly elected Eduardo Duhalde, of the Justicialist Party, as provisional President. Duhalde ended convertibility, establishing a regime of asymmetric pesification, known as "the corralón".^[77] The peso was devalued by 300% and the banks did not return their clients' dollar deposits, provoking actions against them by broad sectors of the middle class. In this period poverty climbed to 56% of the population and unemployment to 26%, and the subsidies called the Plan for Unemployed Heads of Household (Plan de Jefes y Jefas de Hogar Desocupados) were established, reaching a peak of two million plans in May 2003. The foreign debt reached 135% of GDP.^[78] That year inflation was 41% and the rise in food prices reached 74.9%.^[79]

Kirchnerism and Macrism

The history of Argentina between 2003 and 2023^{[n. 1]} has been characterized by the election on four occasions of Peronism-Kirchnerism (2003, 2007, 2011 and 2019) and once of Macrism-Radicalism (2015). Toward the end of the period the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic (2020/2021) occurred, and it closed with the 2023 presidential elections, won by a liberal-libertarian anarcho-capitalist candidate, for the first time in world history.^[80]

The period began with the recovery from the great crisis of December 2001, caused by the social explosion due to the economic convertibility between the Argentine Peso and the US dollar, which gave way to the default on its foreign debt, thus generating enormous social upheaval that placed more than half the population below the poverty line, with almost a third unemployment and wages eroded by inflation.

In the 2003 presidential elections, Néstor Kirchner defeated Menemism, represented by Carlos Menem himself, when the latter withdrew from the runoff.^[81]^[82] During this period Congress initiated impeachment proceedings against five members of the Supreme Court, prompting the resignation of three and the removal of the other two.^[83] The impunity laws were annulled, and the trials for crimes against humanity committed during the dictatorship were reopened, in which hundreds of repressors were sentenced to prison.^[84]

Notable were the push to dismantle the FTAA, the cancellation of the debt with the International Monetary Fund, and a restructuring of the foreign debt with a large haircut. GDP grew from 97,000 million dollars in 2002 to more than 329,000 million dollars in 2007.^[85] Unemployment fell from 17.9 % in 2002 to 8.5 % in 2007.^[86] Labor policy restored annual paritarias (collective bargaining between employers and unions) and provided for the annual setting of the minimum wage by tripartite agreement, with unregistered work falling from 50 % in 2003 to 39 % in 2007.^[87] Inflation was moderate, though with an upward trend: it went from 5.3 % in 2004^[88] to an estimated 15 to 20 % for 2007,^[89] although official statistics reported a considerably lower rate.^[90]

In the 2007 presidential elections, Kirchnerism triumphed again with Cristina Fernández de Kirchner as candidate for the Front for Victory, the first Argentine woman to head a presidential ticket that won the Argentine elections. During her term (2007–2011) the Social Security system was renationalized, the Universal Child Allowance was created, Aerolíneas Argentinas was renationalized, the equal marriage law was approved, and the Broadcasting Law from the era of the military dictatorship was repealed, with a new Media Law enacted. Internationally, she promoted the creation of the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC). Shortly after beginning her term she faced a lengthy agricultural employers' lockout supported by massive demonstrations by the farming and ranching sector, owing to the official policy of export taxes.

In the 2011 presidential elections, Kirchnerism (Front for Victory) triumphed for the third time, with candidate Cristina Fernández de Kirchner winning with 54 %, more votes than in the two previous elections.

During her second term the renationalization of 51 % of the shares of the oil company YPF was approved; pensions were extended to housewives and precarious workers; the Audiovisual Communication Services laws were approved; the Gender Identity Law was enacted; millions of laptop computers were delivered to children and adolescents in public schools throughout the country through the state program Conectar Igualdad; a new Civil and Commercial Code was approved; and the development of the industrial sector was promoted, notably with the placing into orbit on October 16, 2014, of the satellite ARSAT-1, a geostationary communications satellite of the state company ARSAT, built by the Argentine company INVAP. Subsequently, on September 30, 2015, ARSAT-2 was launched; like the previous one, both were put into orbit from French Guiana. With the development and placing into orbit of these satellites, Argentina became part of the select group of countries of the global space industry.^[92] Likewise, the launch of the satellite ARSAT-3 was planned within the National Space Plan, but that development was suspended owing to the change of political administration brought about by the triumph of Macrism in the 2015 elections.

During Cristina Fernández de Kirchner's two terms, alongside a substantial reduction in poverty, unemployment and unregistered work, the Argentine middle class largely doubled;^[86]^[93] there was also a strong legal and media confrontation between the government and the country's largest media conglomerate, Grupo Clarín.^[94]

In 2012 a period of economic difficulties and deterioration of social indicators began, within the framework of the worldwide Great Recession of 2008, and especially the economic crisis in Brazil of 2014, with inflation close to 30 %, although official data indicated lower rates.^[95] Owing to the global and regional situation, the Argentine Government took measures such as establishing regulations on the purchase of dollars, increasing public spending, and various types of subsidies both to industry and to public services. During her two terms GDP grew from 329,000 million dollars to 548,000 million dollars in 2014.^[85]

In the 2015 presidential elections, Macrism defeated Peronism-Kirchnerism in a runoff. Elected president was the politician, engineer, former football executive and businessman Mauricio Macri (who was also president of Club Atlético Boca Juniors between 1995 and 2007, and Chief of Government of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires from 2007 to 2015), for Republican Proposal (PRO) with the electoral alliance Cambiemos, first losing with 34 % in the first round but winning with 51 % of the vote in the second round, against the Peronist-Kirchnerist candidate, Daniel Scioli, who obtained 48 % in the first round and 37 % in the second round.^[96]

His presidency began a stage of complete change in the orientation that the policies of the Kirchnerist governments had had until then, since it not only applied a series of measures such as the deregulation of the financial market for the free acquisition of foreign currency^[97] but also reductions in export duties on soy and other cereals,^[98] as well as on mining exports; this led to a slight rise in GDP and inflation, as well as in the country's productive activity, and to an increase in foreign debt.

In early January 2016, the Audiovisual Communication Services Law was modified by a Decree of necessity and urgency of Mauricio Macri,^[99] relaxing its antimonopoly rules and benefiting the country's main mass media outlets aligned with the government.^[100]

In March of the same year the Tarifazo of 2016 occurred, in which the transport minister Guillermo Dietrich announced increases in the rates for water, electricity, fuel and public transport ahead of the celebrations of the Bicentennial of Argentine Independence, the largest rate increase in recent history, generating widespread indignation among the Argentine population.

In 2017, the presidency of Mauricio Macri promoted a reform of the retirement and pension system^[101] known as the Pension Reform, approved by the Congress of the Argentine Nation on December 19 of that same year. This reform affected retired older adults; pensioners; beneficiaries of social and family allowances and of the Universal Child Allowance; and even veterans of the Malvinas War.

According to its proponents, the objectives of this reform were "to increase the sustainability of the retirement system and facilitate the reduction of the fiscal deficit and inflation", but in return it cut pensions by 3 to 8 %, as well as the social security budget by some 72,000 million pesos (approximately 4,100 million dollars). This triggered massive protests and mobilizations with cacerolazos rejecting the new formula throughout the country, but they were repressed by the National Gendarmerie, under orders from the Minister of Security, Patricia Bullrich. In 2018 retirement and pension payments lost 19.2 % of purchasing power, as benefits rose by 28.4 %^[102] and the consumer price index increased by 47.6 %.^[103]

The government of Mauricio Macri decided to pay the speculative vulture funds, which were in litigation with Argentina, sums far greater than those they had demanded; a first payment was 9,300 million dollars, challenged in the courts,^[104] giving rise to a "third generation", a new batch of plaintiffs with bonds that had not entered the previous debt swaps.^[105]

In less than two years (between December 2015 and June 2017) the debt issued by the government of Mauricio Macri amounted to almost one hundred thousand million dollars,^[106] thus reaching the figure of 216,351 million dollars in December 2017.^[107]

In 2018 capital flight occurred, causing the devaluation of the Argentine peso by 135 %.^[108] This led the government to negotiate again with the International Monetary Fund, taking on debt worth 55,000 million dollars, the largest loan granted by the institution in its history, generating a considerable increase in the foreign debt. In 2019 a second capital flight occurred, reported as the most gigantic in all of Argentine history.^[109] This caused another devaluation of the Peso of 50 %, with total flight reaching 26,870 million dollars, leading the Macri government to reinstate the "cepo cambiario" (currency controls), like the Kirchnerist model but with greater restrictions.

In the 2019 presidential elections, Mauricio Macri sought reelection, but was defeated by the Peronist candidate Alberto Fernández, accompanied by Cristina Fernández de Kirchner as vice-presidential candidate, who obtained 48 % of the vote in the first round. In his first two years of government, President Fernández had to face the COVID-19 pandemic.

The period ends with the victory of Javier Milei in the 2023 presidential elections, a candidate not linked to the ideologies that dominated Argentine politics during these two decades.^[110]

Government and politics

The Government of Argentina is a representative, republican and federal democracy, governed by the current Constitution. Argentina was formed through the federative union of the provinces that emerged after the dissolution of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, and through the incorporation of those that were constituted over time from the national territories established following the conquest of large indigenous territories. Within the government itself, this executive governmental entity is commonly referred to as the Presidency of the Nation.

Because of the federal character of its political organization, Argentina has two parallel structures of government. On one side is the national structure, with its three branches. On the other side are the 23 provincial structures, which predate the Nation, plus that of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires. These have autonomy and are each governed by three branches.^[111]

The authorities of the federal government are seated in the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires. The national Constitution and the federalization law call it the "Capital of the Republic" or "Capital of the Nation", but it is usually called the Federal Capital. The Federal Capital is governed by a system of autonomy and is subdivided into communes. The provinces have subdivisions ("departments" or "partidos") and municipalities, which may or may not coincide with the partido or department, depending on the province.

Executive Branch

The National Executive Branch (PEN) of Argentina is the executive body of the country's central State. It is a single-person, pyramidal body headed by the President of the Argentine Nation. The President is the highest authority in the country and serves as both head of state and head of government. The President must be elected every four years by direct, secret, universal and compulsory suffrage, in a two-round ballot together with the candidate for Vice President. The constitutional reform of 1994 introduced the runoff mechanism. A runoff is held between the two most-voted options if none obtained more than 45% of the valid votes in the first round. It is also held if the most-voted option obtained between 40% and 45% and its lead over the second option was less than 10%.^[112]

The President and the Vice President serve four-year terms and may be immediately re-elected for one more term.^[113] The President's cabinet of ministers is led by the Chief of the Cabinet of Ministers, who is in charge of the administration of the country and is accountable to Congress.^[114] Since December 10, 2023, the head of the PEN has been Javier Milei of the Libertarian Party, whose term runs until December 10, 2027.^[115] He is the tenth president since the restoration of constitutional order in 1983.^[116]

The main functions of the PEN include being the head of State and the country's international representative. It is also commander-in-chief of the Argentine Armed Forces and directs the National Public Administration. The Office of the Chief of the Cabinet of Ministers reports to it, as do the ministers and secretaries of equivalent rank. It is the branch of the State in Argentina with the largest budget and the largest number of officials and employees.

The PEN also has co-legislative functions and community tasks, such as promulgating laws and the power to veto them. In agreement with the Chamber of Senators of the Nation, it appoints judges.

Legislative Branch

The Argentine National Congress sits between March 1 and November 30 of each year. The President of the Argentine Nation may, however, call extraordinary sessions or extend the session period.^[117] In the first case it is the President who determines the matters to be addressed. In the second, the Argentine National Congress has free initiative. According to the interpretation of the Chambers, this extension of sessions may also be ordered by Congress.

It is seated in the Palace of the Argentine National Congress in the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires. The palace stands on the Plaza del Congreso, at the western end of the Avenida de Mayo. The avenue connects it directly with the Plaza de Mayo, where the Casa Rosada, seat of the national Executive Branch, is located.

The Chamber of Deputies of the Argentine Nation has a variable number of representatives according to the population of each district (each of the provinces and the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires). That number can never be fewer than three. Deputies are elected by proportional representation (the D'Hondt method) and serve four-year terms. Half the chamber is renewed every two years, as each district elects about half of its deputies every two years, and deputies may be re-elected indefinitely. Each province and the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires serves as a single electoral district. There, voters choose a list of all the candidates of each political party or electoral alliance for the seats that the district puts up in that election.^[118] The Gender Parity Law requires that lists of candidates to the Argentine National Congress be made up of 50% women and 50% men.^[119] This law strengthened the participation of women in politics, which has been vigorous in Argentina since the enactment of the Female Quota Law. As a result, the Argentine Republic is the South American country with the largest number of women in the Legislative Branch and is also among the top ten worldwide.^[120]

The Senate of the Argentine Nation brings together the representatives of the provinces and the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires. Each district has two senators for the majority and one for the minority, for a total of 72 Senators. They are elected by direct vote of the inhabitants of each district under the incomplete list system. Two seats go to the list that obtains the most votes and one to the list that follows it. Senators serve six-year terms and one third of the Senate is renewed every two years, with the renewal elections held in alternating districts. They may be re-elected indefinitely.^[121]

The Argentine National Congress has an autonomous constitutional body for technical assistance: the Office of the Auditor General of the Argentine Nation. It is in charge of the legality review, management review and auditing of all the activity of the public administration.^[122] In addition, the Ombudsman of the Argentine Nation operates within the sphere of the Argentine National Congress as an independent body that receives no instructions from any authority. Its purpose is to defend human rights and the constitutional and legal rights that may be affected by the Administration.^[123]

Judicial Branch

The Judicial Branch of the Nation (PJN) is one of the three branches that make up the Argentine Republic. It is exercised by the Supreme Court of Justice (CSJN) and by the other lower courts that the Congress establishes in the territory of the Nation.

It is regulated in the third section of the second part of the Constitution of the Argentine Nation. The Supreme Court is composed of five judges who are lawyers. They are appointed by the President of the Nation with the consent of the Senate, which requires a two-thirds majority.^[124]^[125]

The lower courts resolve disputes governed by federal legislation throughout the country (federal courts). They also resolve disputes governed by ordinary legislation in the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires (national courts). Judges are appointed by the President of the Nation with the consent of the Senate. The appointment is made from a shortlist of three candidates selected through a public competition by the Council of Magistracy. This body has a multisectoral composition and is responsible for the direct oversight of judges and the administration of the Judicial Branch.^[126] Judges remain in office "for as long as their good conduct lasts." They can only be removed for serious offenses by a Jury of Impeachment made up of legislators, magistrates, lawyers and senators.

Public Ministry

The Public Ministry of Argentina is an independent constitutional body with functional and financial autonomy whose function is to promote the action of justice. Part of legal doctrine considers the Public Ministry a fourth branch. Another part holds that it is an extra-branch body.^[127]

It is a two-headed body made up of two offices. The first is the Public Prosecutor's Office, headed by the Attorney General of the Nation and in charge of the action of prosecutors. The second is the Public Defender's Office, headed by the Defender General of the Nation and in charge of the action of official or public defenders.^[128] The Ombudsman is not part of this body. It is instead an independent body with functional autonomy within the sphere of the National Congress.

Prosecutors defend the public interest in judicial proceedings by bringing public action. Public defenders defend the rights of persons prosecuted by the country's courts. They also defend those who, for some reason, cannot conduct their own defense, as in the case of minors, the legally incapacitated or those affected by discrimination.

Provincial governments

In Argentina, a province is each of the twenty-three federated states so named in the Constitution of the Argentine Nation. Together with the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires, they constitute the country's first-order jurisdictions and territorial divisions.

Under the principles of federalism established in the National Constitution, the provinces have full autonomy. They form part of the Nation and are legally pre-existent to it. Legally, Argentina was constituted as a federation of provinces. By constitutional mandate it keeps the historical names of United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and Argentine Confederation, in addition to Argentine Republic (the only one in common use).

Foreign relations

The foreign relations of Argentina are the relations the country maintains with other countries. They span the political, economic, commercial, military, legal, cultural, geopolitical and geostrategic fields. Since its beginnings, Argentina has been a primary actor in South America and has played an important role on the global political stage. Its orientation and alliances have, however, varied greatly over time and across different governments. Even so, with some exceptions, Argentina has generally been characterized by a greater level of autonomy from the great powers and a more sovereign foreign policy than other Latin American countries. This is due to its higher level of development and to the perception that it has an important role to play in the world. It is also due to the greater weight that ideologies, intellectuals and anti-imperialist currents have had throughout its history. In this sense, its foreign policy is comparable to that of other middle powers.

Argentina's foreign relations are managed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship of the Argentine Republic. The current Foreign Minister is Gerardo Werthein.

Argentina took part in every phase of the Haiti operation and has also contributed to peacekeeping operations in various parts of the world. In January 1998, United States President Bill Clinton designated Argentina a major non-NATO ally in recognition of its contributions to international security and peacekeeping.^[129]

Argentina maintains a sovereignty dispute over the Malvinas, South Sandwich, Aurora and South Georgia islands and their surrounding maritime areas. These islands are administered by the United Kingdom.^[130] It also claims almost 1 million square kilometers in Antarctica, a claim not recognized by any other country.

In 2006, a dispute began with Uruguay over the start of construction of a pulp mill by the Finnish company Metsä-Botnia in the Uruguayan town of Fray Bentos. Argentina sued Uruguay before the International Court of Justice. It argued that the pulp mills are polluting and were installed in violation of the Statute of the River Uruguay.^[131]

Defense and security

Armed Forces

The Argentine Armed Forces are the military instrument for the national defense of Argentina. The Armed Forces consist exclusively of the Army, the Navy and the Air Force.^[132] Besides national defense, they support the community in emergencies and deploy troops on peacekeeping operations under a UN mandate. They also provide logistical and transport support to the Argentine presence in Antarctica.^[133]

The President of the Nation is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces and directs the military instrument, in accordance with the powers conferred by Article 99 of the Argentine Constitution.^[132]^[134]

From 2006, defense action was restricted to external aggression by the armed forces of another State. The law does, however, allow military elements to be used in a subsidiary role in support of internal security. It also allows their use to restore order within military jurisdiction, or to restore order domestically after the President of the Republic declares a state of siege.^[135] Since 2024, Decree 1112/24 has addressed "new threats". It permits action against threats of a non-state nature and adds the protection of targets of strategic value as a subsidiary mission.^[136]^[137]

The General Staffs of the three Armed Forces are devoted only to the training, readiness and maintenance of their assets. The use of those assets in peacetime is assigned to the Joint General Staff (EMCO). Military operations in peacetime are assigned to the Joint Operations Command,^{[n. 2]} within the EMCO's sphere. This command carries out the surveillance and control of the Nation's land, maritime and aerospace domains.^[138]

In peacetime, air defense against irregular air traffic (TAI) is carried out by the Joint Aerospace Command (COCAES). It intercepts such civilian aircraft in compliance with the recommendations issued by the ICAO.^[139]

The Armed Forces have shrunk since the end of compulsory military service (SMO) in 1994. Spending cuts carried out since the 1980s, and more sharply since 2004, have also reduced them. Argentina's defense budget thus fell markedly, averaging only between 0.7 and 0.9% of GDP. It even fell to 0.4% in 2022, a historic low. FONDEF (the national defense fund), approved in 2020, provides an additional allocation of funds.^[140]

Argentina maintains defense ties with Brazil and Chile through cooperation agreements and mechanisms.^[141] It is also a major non-NATO ally (MNNA), a designation made by Bill Clinton in 1998. The arms embargo imposed by the United Kingdom since 1982 remains in place.^[142]

Women have progressively been admitted into the Armed Forces since 1980, and a gender policy has been implemented since 2005. The percentage of women in the armed forces rose from 7.6% in 2006 to 16.8% in 2017.^[143]^[144] In 2015, the three forces had approximately 77,000 personnel.^[145] In 2018, the reported number of personnel reached slightly more than 83,000.^[146]

Security Forces

The Argentine Naval Prefecture (PNA) is responsible for the security of territorial waters. The Argentine National Gendarmerie (GNA) covers border regions and critical infrastructure works, and the Airport Security Police (PSA) covers airports. These security forces report to the Ministry of Security.

The National Intelligence System directs intelligence activities. The most prominent body within it is the Federal Intelligence Agency (AFI). There are also various other public bodies, such as the Directorate of Judicial Observations, the Department of Interception and Capture of Communications, the National Gendarmerie Intelligence and the Anti-Corruption Office, among others.^[147]

Each province has its own police, which may work jointly with the PFA. The PFA is the security force in charge of crimes that fall exclusively under federal jurisdiction or that involve more than one jurisdiction. Until 2009, the Federal Police was the police force of the city of Buenos Aires. That year, the then Chief of Government of Buenos Aires, Mauricio Macri, created the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Police. It was created under Public Security Law No. 2894, enacted on October 28, 2008, and promulgated by Decree 1354 of November 18 of that year. The implementing regulations of the law were issued on March 20, 2009, by Decree 210.^[148]

Human rights

In its Constitution, Argentina grants human rights treaties constitutional rank.^[149]

According to the 2018 Human Development Report of the United Nations Development Programme, Argentina has a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.825. Worldwide, it ranks 47th among the 189 states included in the ranking and is classified as a very high HDI country. Together with Chile and Uruguay, it is one of the only countries in Latin America at this HDI level.^[150]

Territorial organization

The territorial organization of Argentina is made up of several levels. The first level comprises the 23 provinces and the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires. The latter is the capital of the nation and the seat of the federal Government.

Provinces

In Argentina, a province is each of the twenty-three federated states so named in the Constitution of the Argentine Nation. Together with the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires, they constitute the country's first-order jurisdictions and territorial divisions.

Under the principles of federalism established in the National Constitution, the provinces have full autonomy. They form part of the Nation and are legally pre-existent to it. Legally, Argentina was constituted as a federation of provinces. By constitutional mandate it keeps the historical names of United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and Argentine Confederation, in addition to Argentine Republic (the only one in common use).

Autonomous City of Buenos Aires

Buenos Aires is the capital and most populous city of the Argentine Republic. Its official names are City of Buenos Aires or Autonomous City of Buenos Aires (CABA).^[151] It is also called the Federal Capital and is the seat of the national Government.^[152] It is one of the 24 districts, or "first-order jurisdictions",^[153] that make up the country. Since 1996 it has been an autonomous city, so it has its own executive, legislative and judicial branches. It lies in the center-east of the country, on the southern shore of the Río de la Plata, in the Pampean region. The Province of Buenos Aires ceded the City of Buenos Aires in 1880 so that it could be the country's federal capital. Since 2020 it has been considered the "principal capital", alongside 24 alternate capitals.^[154]

Regions for economic and social development

The regions for economic and social development, or simply regions, are coordinating entities formally constituted in Argentina by interprovincial treaties.^[155] Each groups a number of provinces that join voluntarily. Their main objectives include improving the implementation of public policies and the management of economic resources. They also seek to foster the economic and social development of their member provinces. A region may be formed on historical, geographical, economic, social, cultural or political grounds; there is no established criterion for forming one.

The regions were provided for in the 1994 reform of the national constitution:^[156]

Article 124. The provinces may create regions for economic and social development and establish bodies with powers to fulfill their purposes. With the knowledge of the National Congress, they may also enter into international agreements, provided these are not incompatible with the foreign policy of the Nation and do not affect the powers delegated to the federal Government or the public credit of the Nation. The city of Buenos Aires shall have the regime established for that purpose. The provinces hold original ownership of the natural resources existing in their territory.

Geography

The territory of the Argentine Republic is the second largest in South America after that of Brazil, the fourth largest in all of the Americas and the eighth largest on Earth. Counting the territories claimed in Antarctica, the Malvinas, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, it would be the seventh largest country in the world.

It borders Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay. Its geography is very varied, with mostly plains in the east, hill ranges in the center and mountains in the west. The Andes mountain range crosses its far western edge from north to south. The highest peak in Argentina is Aconcagua, at 6,960.8 m above sea level.

The Argentine territory under effective sovereignty stretches a great distance from north to south. It extends 3,700 kilometers between its northern and southern extremes, from Santa Catalina (Jujuy) to Ushuaia.^[157] This makes it one of the longest countries in the world.

Argentina's continental area in the Americas is 2,791,820 km².^[158] Of this, 2,780,400 km² is national territory under effective sovereignty.^[159] This area comprises the Federal Capital (Autonomous City of Buenos Aires) and 23 Argentine provinces. The remainder consists of the 11,410 km² of the Malvinas Islands, territories in dispute with the United Kingdom, which controls them.^[130]

The Antarctic continental area, which falls under the provisions of the Antarctic Treaty, covers 969,464 km². Of this, some 965,597 km² corresponds to Argentine Antarctica, a claimed territory that also includes the South Shetland Islands and the South Orkney Islands. The remaining 3,867 km² is made up of the South Georgia Islands (3,560 km²) and the South Sandwich Islands (307 km²). Both belong to the South Atlantic Islands Department of the Province of Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica and South Atlantic Islands. The Antarctic sector also belongs to that province, as a department of its own.

The total area would thus amount to 3,761,274 km². Even so, this figure does not include the 200-nautical mile Argentine ocean strip in the Argentine Sea, nor the waters of the Río de la Plata. Moreover, the United Kingdom claims to extend its maritime area to 350 nautical miles (about 564 km) from the low-water coastline. These claims start from territories claimed by Argentina, or occupied by the United Kingdom but in dispute with Argentina. As a result, the two countries' maritime claims overlap, both around the South Atlantic islands and in the projection from the Antarctic continent and its islands.

Natural regions

The geographic regions of Argentina are the major territorial divisions of the South American nation. They are defined by geographic and historical-social characteristics.^[160]

In Argentina, the idea of a region is not associated with a political-administrative entity or with power relations. It refers instead to an area defined by both physical geography and human geography.^[161]

Various regions have been proposed over the course of history. The most stable have been the Pampean, Cuyo, Northwest and Patagonia regions. Some of them tend to disappear, such as Mesopotamia. By contrast, the Northeast and Metropolitan regions are increasingly recognized. Several leading authors have considered the Chaco and/or Sierras Pampeanas regions. The division of Patagonia into Andean and Extra-Andean tends to be losing consensus. Likewise, Difrieri proposed dividing the Pampa into Humid and Dry, but other authors did not take this up. Several leading authors have considered regions for Argentine Antarctica and for the Argentine Sea.^[162] Thus, over the last 50 years, the number of continental regions has ranged from 8 to 6, to which 1 or 2 maritime/Antarctic regions may be added.

Hydrography

The hydrography of Argentina studies the country's natural bodies of water, including rivers, lakes, wetlands, ice fields and groundwater. It also studies those created by human action, such as reservoirs and canals.

Argentine rivers are grouped into three drainage basins or watersheds. The first is the Atlantic watershed, whose rivers drain into the Argentine Sea. The second is the Pacific watershed. The third comprises the various endorheic basins of the country's interior.^[163]

Climate

The climate of Argentina is determined by the position of almost all of its territory^[164] in the temperate zone of the Earth's southern hemisphere.^[165] Its great extent in latitude allows for warm subtropical climates in the north and cold climates in the south.

Many Argentine regions are characterized by a small difference in temperature between winter and summer, typical of oceanic climates. The country's precipitation depends on two planetary-scale maritime air masses that bring humid air from the oceans. These are the tropical air mass of the South Atlantic Ocean and the polar maritime air mass of the South Pacific. The first is responsible for the abundant and sufficient rainfall over the vast areas of the Chaco-Pampean Plain. The Andes mountain range and other mountain systems favor orographic rainfall in some regions and reduce it in others. Where it is favored, humid climates occur. The areas with reduced rainfall form a broad zone of arid climates. This zone belongs to the arid diagonal of South America, which crosses the country from northwest to southeast.

Argentina's climates have been classified by various authors. The most recent classification is that of the National Geographic Institute (IGN) (Map 1). It updates a long tradition of national classifications, which are in turn based on the international Köppen–Geiger classification.

Argentina's climate is closely linked to important sectors of its economy. The different climate types allow and favor different types of crops and livestock. Climate also plays a part in certain types of tourism.

Effects of climate change

Absolute maximum temperatures recorded in Argentina during the December 2013 heat wave. This was the longest and most intense heat wave in Argentina.^[166]

Climate change in Argentina refers to the causes and effects of climate change in Argentina and to the policies for mitigating it and adapting to it. Scientific predictions indicate that global warming will have significant effects on the climate of Argentina.^[167] Temperatures have risen more slowly than the global average, but the impacts have been felt in many areas. If these trends continue, climate change is predicted to exacerbate existing natural disasters, for example by increasing the intensity and frequency of floods. It is also predicted to create new flood areas.

Environmental problems

The main environmental problems of Argentina are pollution caused by poor waste management. They also include deforestation and desertification, caused by poor management of agricultural land. A further problem is the indiscriminate application of pesticides, which affects both the biodiversity of Argentina and its population.^[168]^[169]

Symbols of Argentina

The national symbols of Argentina are the symbols used to represent this nation and its inhabitants within and outside its territory.^[170]

Flag

File:Flag of Argentina.svg/3

Flag of Argentina

The national flag of Argentina is one of the country's four national symbols, together with the national coat of arms, the national anthem and the cockade.^[171] It was created by Manuel Belgrano, who designed it with the light blue and white colors of the national cockade, though it later underwent some modifications. June 20, the date of his death, is Argentine Flag Day.^[172]^[173] It was first raised in Rosario on February 27, 1812:^[174]

Sun of May

Sun of May on the flag of Argentina, est. 1818
Sun on the flag of Uruguay, est. 1830
Sun of May on the flag and coat of arms of Ecuador, est. 1830

The Sun of May, also called the Inca Sun,^[175] is one of the national emblems of Argentina,^[176] Uruguay^[177]^[178] and Ecuador. It appears on their flags and coats of arms.^[179]^[180]

Coat of arms

File:Coat of arms of Argentina.svg/2

The coat of arms of Argentina is one of the four national symbols of the Argentine Republic, together with the flag of Argentina, the Argentine National Anthem and the cockade of Argentina. It was officially adopted on March 12, 1813, by that year's General Constituent Assembly. Even so, documents issued by the Assembly survive that show the current coat of arms was already in use before the decree approving its design became known. Before it, the coat of arms of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata had been used.

The coat of arms of Argentina has the shape of an ellipse in the proportion 14:11. The ellipse is divided along its main axis into celeste (light blue) and silver or argent (white), and thus keeps to the national colors.

The Assembly of Year XIII commissioned Agustín Donado, deputy for San Luis, to oversee the making of the seal that would authenticate Government documents. The final engraving of the seal was made by the Peruvian goldsmith Juan de Dios Rivera (1760–1843). He seems to have been inspired by a coat of arms used by the Jacobins during the French Revolution.^[181]

After some modifications to its design, the current design was finally sanctioned on April 24, 1944. This was done by Decree-Law No. 10,302 of the National Executive Branch, which established that only the original design be used.

Anthem

Cockade

Motto

Logo

Provincial patriotic symbols

Flora and fauna

Flora

The flora of Argentina is very diverse and includes trees, shrubs, grasses and other species. Subtropical plants dominate the north of the country as part of the Gran Chaco region. The tree genus Aspidosperma is widespread, represented by the palo de rosa and the quebracho tree. The white and black algarrobo trees (Prosopis alba and Prosopis nigra) also predominate. Savanna occurs in the drier regions near the Andes. Aquatic plants thrive in the region's wetlands.^[183]

Forests

Fauna

The Argentine territory includes a great variety of biomes and biotopes. This is due to its size and its climatic variety, which is shaped by factors as diverse as latitude, altitude and soil conditions. This variety results in a significant diversity of native fauna. Understanding the presence of animal species requires understanding the food web of each ecosystem, and within it that of each biotope. In the case of Argentina, however, a detailed explanation is almost impossible precisely because of its great ecological diversity.

A large part of Argentina's mammal fauna arrived thousands or millions of years ago from North America. Relatively few species descended from the ancient megacontinent of Gondwana have survived to the present. The most notable of these are armadillos, anteaters, marsupials and primates (all platyrrhines). The marsupials include opossums, the monito del monte and the comadreja colorada.

Argentine territory, like that of the whole Southern Cone, is thus identified as part of the Neotropical faunal region and ecozone. The temperate and cold climate of much of the territory has produced endemisms and convergent evolution. It has also allowed the rapid acclimatization of species from the Holarctic region. Some of these arrived ca. 9 million years ago through the Great American Interchange, and others from half a millennium ago to the present.

Economy

The economy of Argentina is the second largest in South America according to 2023 data, surpassed only by Brazil.^[184] The two are the only South American countries in the G20, which brings together most of the world's largest, richest and most industrialized economies. Argentina has great natural resources and benefits from them, especially from its vast plains of fertile land.^[185] It has a sector oriented toward high-technology agricultural production and export. Its knowledge-based services (SBC) and technology exports were projected to exceed seven billion in 2022.^[186]^[187] The country also has a considerably developed nuclear industry^[188]^[189] and satellite industry.^[190] It has a diversified import-substituting industrial base^[191] and a level of scientific and technological development that is considerable for a country that is not developed.^[192] Its population is virtually entirely literate^[193]^[194]^[195]^[196] and has a considerable rate of union membership.^[197]^[198] According to the MSCI market classification index by country, Argentina's economy went from being considered an "emerging market" to the "standalone" category in 2021.^[199]^[200]^[201]^[202]

Agriculture and livestock

The agriculture of Argentina is based mainly on grain production (cereals and oilseeds). The soybean chain as a whole (beans, seeds, oil, feed pellets, meal and biodiesel) is one of the country's main production chains.^[205] Agricultural and livestock food production has traditionally been one of the mainstays of Argentine exports. Argentina is one of the leaders in the world market for grains, oils and by-products.^[206] Agriculture and livestock farming in Argentina are intensive, and in 2018 the sector accounted for 6.14% of GDP.^[207] As of July 2016, the agricultural sector, together with forestry, hunting and fishing, employed 337,196 people^[208] out of a labor force of 17.47 million people, less than 2% of the total.^[209] As of 2023, 7.54% of the Argentine population lived in rural areas, one of the lowest percentages in the world.^[210]^[211] The Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries is the national government body that oversees agriculture.

Argentina is the world's largest producer of yerba mate. It is one of the world's five largest producers of soybeans, maize, lemons, pears and sunflower seed. It is one of the world's ten largest producers of grapes, barley, artichoke, tobacco and cotton. It is also one of the world's fifteen largest producers of wheat, sugarcane, sorghum and grapefruit.^[212] Argentina is the third-largest soybean producer in the world, with 37.7 million tons produced, behind the United States and Brazil. It is the fourth-largest maize producer in the world, with 43.5 million tons produced, behind the United States, China and Brazil. It is the twelfth-largest wheat producer, with 18.5 million tons, and the eleventh-largest sorghum producer, with 1.5 million tons. It is the tenth-largest grape producer, with 1.9 million tons. It also produced nineteen million tons of sugarcane, mainly in Tucumán Province.^[213] Argentina produces about two million tons of sugar from the cane it grows. In the same year, Argentina produced 4.1 million tons of barley, making it one of the world's twenty largest producers of this cereal.^[214] The country is also one of the world's largest producers of sunflower seeds; in 2010 it was the third-largest producer, with 2.2 million tons.^[215] In 2018, Argentina also produced the following, among other crops:

2.3 million tons of potatoes
almost two million tons of lemons
1.3 million tons of rice
one million tons of oranges
921,000 tons of peanuts
813,000 tons of cotton
707,000 tons of onions
656,000 tons of tomatoes
565,000 tons of pears
510,000 tons of apples
491,000 tons of oats
473,000 tons of beans
431,000 tons of mandarins
302,000 tons of yerba mate
283,000 tons of carrots
226,000 tons of peaches
194,000 tons of cassava
174,000 tons of olives
174,000 tons of bananas
148,000 tons of garlic
114,000 tons of grapefruit
110,000 tons of artichokes

It also had smaller output of other agricultural products.^[216]

In livestock, Argentina is the world's 4th-largest producer of beef, with production of three million tons (behind only the United States, Brazil and China). It is also the world's 4th-largest producer of honey and the 10th-largest producer of wool. It is the 13th-largest producer of chicken meat and the 23rd-largest producer of pork. It is the 18th-largest producer of cow's milk and the 14th-largest producer of hen's eggs.^[217]

Argentina is one of the ten largest wine producers in the world; it was the fifth-largest producer in 2018.^[218] Over the years, the production of fine wines has made great leaps in quality. Mendoza is the largest wine region, followed by San Juan.^[219]

A substantial part of agricultural production is exported unprocessed as grain (soybeans, maize, wheat and sunflower), accounting for 15% of total exports.^[220] The rest is used as raw material, mainly by the food industry. Soybeans differ substantially from other agricultural products in that they are not consumed in the domestic market, so virtually all of the crop is exported. By contrast, cereals, dairy products and beef form the basis of the population's diet, which is why a considerable share goes to consumption in the domestic market.

Petroleum

Mining

Manufacturing

Tourism

Transportation

Energy

The electricity sector in Argentina is organized around the coordination of entities or companies engaged in generation, transmission and distribution of energy.^[221]

In 2020, Argentina was the world's 18th-largest producer of natural gas (44.6 million cubic meters)^[222] and the 28th-largest producer of petroleum (440,000 barrels/day).^[223] It was the 21st-largest producer of hydroelectricity, with 11.3 GW of installed capacity, and the 27th-largest producer of wind power, with 2.6 GW. It was also the 42nd-largest producer of solar power, with 0.7 GW of installed capacity.^[224]

The wind potential of the Patagonia region is considered gigantic. Estimates suggest the area could supply enough electricity to sustain the consumption of a country such as Brazil on its own. However, Argentina lacks the infrastructure to transmit electricity from uninhabited, windy areas to the country's major centers.^[225]

Electricity generation reached 129,815 GWh in 2014, growth of slightly more than 40% over the 91,845 GWh recorded in 2004. Of this, 64% was generated in thermal plants and 31% in hydroelectric plants. A further 4% came from nuclear plants and only 1% from wind and solar plants.^[226]

Power generation facilities using renewable resources are in full development. By the end of 2014, there were 187 MW of installed wind power capacity in the Patagonian region and northwestern Argentina. There were also 8 MW of solar power generation in the Cuyo region.^[227]

Argentina has great potential for tidal power generation, given the currents and tidal range along the Patagonian coast.^[228] In December 2014, the first two devices for gathering data on the potential of this resource were installed in Santa Cruz Province.^[229]

This Nation was the first in Latin America to build a nuclear power plant. It currently has three nuclear plants: Atucha I "Juan Domingo Perón", Atucha II "Dr Néstor Kirchner" and "Embalse". A fourth is under construction.^[230]

Geothermal energy has seen practically no notable progress. This is despite the presence of thermal springs and evidence of potential volcanic activity in various parts of the country.^[231]

Electricity is transmitted through a network of high-voltage and trunk distribution lines 33,453 km long. This represents an increase of more than 65% over the length of the network existing in 2004.^[226]

Electricity distribution is handled by companies, which numbered more than 40 entities at the end of 2014. They covered an area of 2,262,664 km², slightly more than 80% of the country's surface. They provided service to 13,496,085 small-consumption users (demand below 4,000 kWh per two months), most of them residential users.^[232]

In 2014, 30,880,627 m³ of petroleum and 41,483,811 million cubic meters of natural gas were produced.^[233] Meanwhile, the discovery of large volumes of hydrocarbons in unconventional reservoirs (i.e. shale gas) has gained prominence in recent years. According to one report, Argentina ranks second in the world for this type of reserve.^[234]

Science and technology

Media

Telecommunications

Newspapers

Population

Demographics

Ethnic composition

Emigration

Immigration

According to two successive reports by the United Nations (UN), as of 2015 Argentina had 2,086,302 immigrants and, as of 2017, 2,164,524, equivalent to 4.6% and 4.9% of the population, respectively, confirming this growing trend.

The rate of foreigners in proportion to those born in the country is very small compared to other nations (121st), but measured in absolute terms, Argentina is the largest recipient of immigrants in all of Latin America, as well as the one with the largest number in the region, and it ranks 28th in the world.^[235]^[236]^[237]^[238]^[239]

The 20 largest immigrant communities according to the national censuses of 1991, 2001, 2010 and 2022

Rank	Country of origin	2023 (est.)^[240]	2022	2010	2001	1991
1st	Paraguay	916,136	522,598	550,713	325,046	254,115
2nd	Bolivia	671,193	338,299	345,272	233,464	145,670
4th	Peru	291,181	156,251	157,514	88,260	15,939
3rd	Venezuela	236,929	161,495	6,379	2,774	1,934
5th	Chile	209,449	149,082	191,147	212,429	247,987
6th	Uruguay	127,813	95,384	116,592	117,564	135,406
10th	Colombia	118,687	46,482	17,576	3,876	2,638
8th	Brazil	106,023	49,943	41,330	34,712	33,966
7th	Italy	84,437	68,169	147,499	216,718	356,923
9th	Spain	68,748	48,492	94,030	134,417	244,212
11th	China	52,341	18,629	8,929	4,184	2,297
12th	Ecuador	37,264	8,879	4,820	N/A	N/A
13th	United States	32,803	13,986	19,147	10,552	9,755
14th	Dominican Republic	14,248	7,817	5,661	1,497	N/A
15th	Mexico	13,902	5,833	6,042	3,323	2,277
16th	South Korea	9,579	5,337	7,321	8,290	8,371
17th	France	9,953	3,960	6,995	6,578	6,309
18th	Germany	7,888	4,087	8,416	10,362	15,451
19th	Cuba	6,896	3,921	3,461	N/A	N/A
20th	Ukraine	4,811	3,486	4,830	8,290	3,498
	Other countries	74,091	221,333	70,564	109,604	141,462
TOTAL		3,094,372	1,933,463	1,805,957	1,531,940	1,628,210

Source: National Institute of Statistics and Censuses (INDEC), 1991, 2001, 2010, 2022.

Indigenous peoples

Health

Urbanization

Main cities

Culture

Literature

Music

Cinema

Theater

Painting

Comics

Language

Religion

Education

Museums, memory sites and performance venues

The most outstanding museums are the National Historical Museum of Argentina and the MALBA, where painting and sculpture exhibitions are held. Also very important are the paleontological museums of Patagonia (Trelew, Plaza Huincul, etc.); the Jesuit ruins of San Ignacio, in Misiones, or the San José Palace in Entre Ríos.

Also important are the memory sites created where clandestine detention centers operated during the Videla dictatorship, such as the ESMA in Buenos Aires and La Perla in Córdoba.

On the other hand, the summer cultural activity in Mar del Plata and Villa Carlos Paz stands out, as do popular fiestas and festivals such as the Cosquín Festival or that of Jesús María in the Province of Córdoba. The Gualeguaychú Carnival is the largest open-air theatrical spectacle in Argentina and is considered the third most important carnival in the world.^[241] Hundreds of national festivals take place in the country throughout the year.

In Buenos Aires there are around 100 cinemas and 90 theaters, with an abundant program of shows. The capital of Argentina also stands out for hosting shows and artists of international renown. Among others, there are cultural centers such as the Borges, the Recoleta or the San Martín.

Gastronomy

Sports

Public holidays

Notes

↑ Article 35 of the Constitution of the Argentine Nation recognizes United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, Argentine Republic and Argentine Confederation as official names, and establishes the use of the words Argentine Nation in the drafting and enactment of laws.
↑ This motto has never been officially declared as such. It was used from 1813 to 1841 in the minting of coins together with the National Coat of Arms. See "Asamblea General Constituyente - Sesión del 12 de marzo de 1813". Ministerio de Economía de la Nación (in español). Archived from the original on January 4, 2014. Later abandoned, it was reincorporated into Argentine numismatics in 1992 and remains in use today.
• Pezzano, Luciano. "En Unión Y Libertad" (PDF). Jornario de las XXIV Jornadas Nacionales de Numismática y Medallística, Vol. II. Santiago del Estero (in español). Archived from the original (PDF) on January 4, 2014. Retrieved June 6, 2016.
• Instituto de Estudios Iberoamericanos, Documentos para la historia de la bandera argentina. Page 134.
• Fernández, Sebastián Martín (June 6, 2016). "La Cultura como Factor de Poder de un Estado" (PDF). Centro Argentino de Estudios Internacionales (in español). p. 17. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 4, 2014.
↑ According to data from the INDEC.
↑ ^4.0 ^4.1 ^4.2 As an Associate in the CAN and CAF. As a Permanent Observer in the Pacific Alliance.
↑ There is an unproven conjecture, supported by one historiographical school, which holds that the provinces under the military protection of José Gervasio Artigas (Federal League) proclaimed national independence at the so-called Congress of the East on June 29, 1815.
↑ Although the constitution was enacted in 1853, it was not until 1861 that it was promulgated throughout the national territory, since in 1852 the Province of Buenos Aires declared itself independent from the Confederation, and it was not until 1861 that it joined the Argentine Republic.
↑ Most recent constitutional reform.
↑ This corresponds to the American continental area, not including the Malvinas Islands. Including them, it would be 2,791,810 km². Adding the Antarctic continental area (Argentine Antarctica and the remaining islands of the South Atlantic Islands) of 969,464 km², the total area would rise to 3,761,274 km² (according to data from the National Geographic Institute of the Argentine Republic).
↑ Argentina has another currency that is legal tender, the Peso Oro Sellado, created in 1881 by Law 1130. Although it ceased to be issued in 1929, it was never repealed. Its use is currently limited, and the Central Bank publishes its value quarterly, measured in Argentine pesos.
↑ Article 35 of the Constitution of the Argentine Nation recognizes United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, Argentine Republic and Argentine Confederation as official names, and establishes the use of the words Argentine Nation in the drafting and enactment of laws.
↑ Since 2020 Argentina has had 25 federal capitals, of which the city of Buenos Aires is the "principal capital"; the rest are "alternate capitals," located one in each province, except for the Province of Buenos Aires, where two alternate capitals are located. Law 27589.
↑ The provinces of the Argentine Littoral and the Oriental Province (united in the Federal League under the protectorate of José Artigas) were not represented. Nor were Paraguay—already de facto independent since 1811—or most of Upper Peru.
↑ When it was sworn on July 21, 1816, and in order to dispel rumors of an intention to submit to Portugal, the act approved on July 9 was revised in a secret session and the following phrase was used in the oath formula: "[…] independence from the King of Spain Ferdinand VII, his successors and metropolis, and from every other foreign domination." See "19 de julio: El acta se modifica" (in español). Ministerio de educación. Archived from the original on May 31, 2011. Retrieved June 27, 2008.
↑ Strictly speaking, not all of Rosas's enemies advocated a unitarian system of government, but Rosista propaganda successfully lumped them all together under a single name, which was repugnant to the federalists of the interior provinces.
↑ In 1945, José Luis Torres wrote a book titled La Década Infame, in which he critically analyzes this period. The term has since been widely adopted to designate the period.

↑ Any division of Argentine history is arbitrary, and there are at least as many as there are historians who have attempted one. This article uses a division into three historical stages of relatively similar length from the May Revolution to the present: a formative stage, during which the political and geographical structure of present-day Argentina and the agro-export economic model were established; a second stage, in which that model was not questioned except in marginal aspects, and conflicts were generally of a political-ideological kind; and a third stage, in which the agro-export model was systematically called into question, and during which the three parties that to date have dominated the political scene were active: Radicalism, Peronism and liberalism, which during most of this cycle could only reach power through de facto governments. In this scheme, this last stage has been divided into four periods of twenty years each—a division made for reasons of symmetry, almost completely arbitrary—plus a period referring to current history, since the triumph of La Libertad Avanza, an economically libertarian and socially conservative party.
↑ Known until 2024 as the "Operational Command of the Armed Forces".

References

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↑ Día exacto de la Declaración de la Independencia de la Argentina (in Spanish)
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↑ Ringe, Donald (2006) From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic (A Linguistic History of English; 1), Oxford: Oxford University Press s. v. *h₂erǵ-
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↑ El general Artigas y su época: Apuntes documentados para la historia oriental, Volume 1, pp. 221–222. Author: Justo Maeso. Publisher: Tip. oriental de Peña y Roustan, 1885.
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↑ Constitution of the Argentine Nation, article 35: "The denominations successively adopted from 1810 to the present, namely: United Provinces of the Río de la Plata; Argentine Republic, Argentine Confederation, shall henceforth be official names, used interchangeably, for the designation of the government and territory of the provinces, the words 'Argentine Nation' being employed in the drafting and enactment of laws."
↑ Luna 1994, capítulo «Hacia la organización nacional - Rosas».
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↑ The Argentine population is taken from the population censuses of 1869 (1,877,490) and 2001 (36,260,130), and that of 1930 from Ortiz, Ricardo M. (1974), Historia económica de la Argentina. Buenos Aires: Plus Ultra, p. 508. The world population is taken from: that of 1870 from Meadows, Donella H. et al. (1975). Los límites del crecimiento. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica, p. 51 (1,400 million); that of 1930 from "Historical Estimates of World Population" Archived 2011-01-02 at the Wayback Machine of the United States Census Bureau (2,070,000,000); that of 2001 from Total Midyear Population for the World: 1950-2050, of the United States Census Bureau (6,146,294,339).
↑ "Lucas Fernández, precursor del socialismo en el Río de la Plata". Argenpress (in español). August 31, 2002. {{cite web}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)
Falcón, Ricardo (2014). "Los trabajadores y el mundo del trabajo". In Bonaudo, Marta (ed.). Liberalismo, Estado y orden burgués (1852-1880). Nueva Historia Argentina (in español). Sudamericana. ISBN 9500750139.
↑ Luna 1994, capítulo «La modelación de la Argentina moderna».
↑ Apuntes agroeconómicos de la UBA: Industrialización (argentina) por sustitución de las importaciones.
↑ ^58.0 ^58.1 "Evita fue declarada "Mujer del Bicentenario"" (in español). diariocol.com.ar. Archived from the original on May 18, 2014. Retrieved May 18, 2014.
↑ ^59.0 ^59.1 "Revolución Libertadora: La cuarta invasión inglesa" (in español). Revista Primera Plana N.º 507. September 13, 1973. Archived from the original on May 3, 2012.
↑ Frigerio, José Oscar (October 1984). "Perón y la Iglesia. Historia de un conflicto inútil". Todo es Historia (in español) (210). Buenos Aires: 35. ISSN 0040-8611. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
↑ "Hay que matar a Perón" (in español). Pedro Bevilacqua. February 16, 2012. Archived from the original on October 15, 2012.
↑ Elsa Portugheis (coord.) (2010). "Atentado del 15 de abril de 1953". Bombardeo del 16 de junio de 1955 (PDF) (in español). Buenos Aires: Secretaría de Derechos Humanos de la Nación Argentina. pp. 135–142.
↑ Pigna, Felipe. "Arturo Frondizi" (in español). El Historiador. Archived from the original on October 14, 2009. Retrieved October 29, 2013.
↑ "Capítulo 66: La revolución argentina (1966-1973)" (in español). Universidad del CEMA. Archived from the original on July 2, 2008. Retrieved July 6, 2008.
↑ Susana Viau (January 13, 2007). ""Una débil mujer"" (in español). Página/12. Retrieved July 6, 2008.
↑ Comas, José (June 14, 1989). "Alfonsín dimitirá 5 meses antes del fin de su mandato". El País (in español).
↑ Delich, Francisco (1997). El desempleo de masas en la Argentina (in español). Buenos Aires: Norma. ISBN 9789501399042. • The murder rate increased by 400% between 1989 and 1996. Rodríguez, Fernando (July 27, 2001). "La violencia es realidad y sensación en la Argentina". La Nación (in español). Retrieved March 2, 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
↑ "Menem se alineó contra Saddam. Afirmó que la Argentina respaldará las acciones de Estados Unidos o de las Naciones Unidas". La Nación (in español). February 7, 1998. Archived from the original on December 12, 2016. Retrieved March 5, 2016. • "Las dos fragatas de Menem". Clarín (in español). January 30, 2003. Retrieved March 5, 2016.
↑ Levinas, Gabriel (1998). La ley bajo los escombros (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. ISBN 9789500748278.
↑ Santoro, Daniel (2001). Venta de armas: hombres de Menem : la investigación periodística que reveló el escándalo del tráfico a Ecuador y Croacia (in español). Buenos Aires: Planeta. ISBN 9789504907978.
↑ Borón, Ernesto; Massetti, Astor; Piva, Adrián (2007). Movimientos sociales y acción colectiva en la Argentina de hoy (in español). Argentina: Prometeo. ISBN 987574204X. {{cite book}}: |first4= missing |last4= (help)
↑ Blázquez, Jorge y Sebastián, Miguel (December 2003). "El Impacto de la crisis argentina sobre la economía española" (PDF) (in español). Real Instituto Elcano. Archived from the original (pdf) on September 24, 2015. Retrieved June 21, 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Tenembaum, Ernesto (2004). Enemigos:Argentina y el FMI (in español). Buenos Aires: Norma. ISBN 9789875452022.
↑ González, Fernando (December 21, 2001). "De la Rúa renunció, cercado por la crisis y sin respaldo político". Clarín (in español). Archived from the original on March 6, 2008. Retrieved March 15, 2008. • "Renunció De la Rúa: el peronista Puerta está a cargo del Poder Ejecutivo". La Nación (in español). December 20, 2001. Retrieved March 15, 2008.
↑ ^75.0 ^75.1 Godio, Julio (2002). Argentina: En la crisis está la solución. La crisis global desde las elecciones de 2001 hasta la asunción de Duhalde (in español). Buenos Aires: Biblos. ISBN 950-786-334-6.
↑ Reato, Ceferino (2015). Doce noches (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. ISBN 9789500752367.
↑ Abad, Daniel (July 29, 2012). "El origen de la llamada pesificación asimétrica". La Gaceta (in español).
↑ Godio, Julio (2003). Argentina: luces y sombras en el primer año de transición : las mutaciones de la economía, la sociedad y la política durante el gobierno de Eduardo Duhalde (enero-diciembre 2002) (in español). Buenos Aires: Biblos. ISBN 950-786-360-5.
↑ "La inflación del 2002 acumuló 41 %, pero los alimentos subieron 74.9 %". Río Negro (in español). January 7, 2003.
↑ Nicas, Jack; Alcoba, Natalie; Cholakian Herrera, Natalie. "Argentina se prepara para un presidente "anarcocapitalista"". New York Times (in español).
↑ De 2013, 14 De Mayo. "Se cumplen 10 años de la renuncia de Menem al ballotage con Kirchner". Infobae (in español). Retrieved 2020-12-23.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
↑ www.eldia.com, Diario El Dia de La Plata. "Diario El Dia de La Plata www.eldia.com". www.eldia.com (in español). Retrieved 2020-12-23.
↑ Asociación por los Derechos Civiles (2005). "Reformas institucionales". La Corte y los derechos. Un informe sobre el contexto y el impacto de sus decisiones durante el período 2003-2004 (in español). Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI. ISBN 987-1220-31-6.
↑ Procuraduría de Crímenes contra la Humanidad (2016). El estado de las causas por delitos de lesa humanidad en Argentina (PDF) (in español). Buenos Aires: Procuración General de la Nación. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 13, 2016. Retrieved May 12, 2020.
↑ ^85.0 ^85.1 "Argentina. PIB (USD a precios actuales)". Banco Mundial (in español). Retrieved September 21, 2016.
↑ ^86.0 ^86.1 "Desempleo, total (% de la población activa total) (estimación modelado OIT)". Banco Mundial (in español). Retrieved September 21, 2016.
↑ MTEySS (September 2013). "Trabajo no registrado: Avances y desafíos para una Argentina inclusiva" (PDF). CTA (in español).
↑ "En 2004, los salarios y la inflación salieron empatados". Diario Clarín (in español). January 8, 2005.
↑ "La visión de los economistas". La Nación (in español). December 9, 2007. Archived from the original on December 2, 2013. Retrieved April 20, 2020.
↑ "Datos oficiales para todo 2007. INDEC: la inflación de 2007 fue 8,5%, la menor en cuatro años". Diario Clarín (in español). January 8, 2008.
↑ "Cristina es la primera mujer electa presidente de la Argentina y la gran estafadora de dicho país. Dejó al país en bancarrota, y sin embargo las personas aún así la siguen". www.elcucodigital.com (in español). Retrieved April 4, 2016.
↑ infoespacial.com (December 22, 2014). "Argentina entra en el club más selecto de la industria espacial - Noticias Infoespacial América". infoespacial.com (in español). Retrieved April 20, 2020.
↑ "Argentina duplicó su clase media en la última década, dice informe del Banco Mundial". Banco Mundial (in español). November 13, 2012.
↑ Sivak, Martín (2015). Clarín. La era Magneto (in español). Buenos Aires: Planeta. ISBN 9789504947066.
↑ Salvia, Agustín; Vera, Julieta (April 13, 2016). "Pobreza y desigualdad de ingresos en la Argentina urbana 2010-2015. Tiempos de balance" (PDF). Observatorio de la Deuda Social Argentina (in español). Pontificia Universidad Católica Argentina.
↑ Crucianelli, Mariel Fitz PatrickySandra (2023-11-18). "Mauricio Macri vs Daniel Scioli: los números y las claves del único balotaje que hubo en la Argentina". infobae (in español). Retrieved 2024-07-25.
↑ http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1926078-el-banco-central-termino-de-desarmar-el-cepo-cambiario-se-puede-comprar-dolares-sin-limite
↑ "Copia archivada" (in español). Archived from the original on February 2, 2017. Retrieved April 20, 2020.
↑ "Escándalo institucional: modifican por DNU la Ley de Medios". El Destape Web. Retrieved July 13, 2017.
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↑ "InfoLEG - Ministerio de Justicia y Derechos Humanos - Argentina". servicios.infoleg.gob.ar (in español). Retrieved 2022-03-18.
↑ Obarrio, Mariano (January 12, 2018). "Las jubilaciones pierden en 2018, pero apuntan a recuperarse en 2019". La Nación (in español).
↑ Diamante, Sofía (January 15, 2019). "La inflación en 2018 fue del 47,6%, la cifra más alta en los últimos 27 años". La Nación (in español).
↑ "Copia archivada" (in español). Archived from the original on February 11, 2018. Retrieved July 10, 2017.
↑ http://web.archive.org/web/20230615075838/https://www.telam.com.ar/notas/201603/141251-pago-holdouts-fondos-buitre-senado-debate.html • Los 10 grandes cambios que ya logró Mauricio Macri
↑ "El Gobierno emitió un bono a 100 años". Pagina12 (in español). June 19, 2017.
↑ "La deuda externa aumentó a 216 351 millones de dólares". Infobae (in español). December 22, 2017.
↑ "Fuga feroz: desde que asumió Macri, se fueron del país 133 313 millones de dólares". BAE Negocios (in español). Retrieved 2022-03-18.
↑ "La fuga de capitales en 2019 fue la segunda más grande de la historia". Perfil (in español). 2020-01-22. Retrieved 2022-03-18.
↑ "Asunción presidencial de Javier Milei, EN VIVO: horario, quiénes vienen y cronograma del 10 de diciembre". Todo Noticias (in español). 2023-12-10. Retrieved 2023-12-10.
↑ «Gobiernos de provincia», Constitución Nacional, see Article 121.
↑ Constitución nacional - De la forma y tiempo de la elección del presidente y vicepresidente de la Nación
↑ "Constitución Nacional Capítulo I: De su naturaleza y duración" (in español). Retrieved May 17, 2014.
↑ "Segunda Parte: Autoridades de la Nación" (in español). Archived from the original on May 18, 2014. Retrieved May 17, 2014.
↑ "Asunción presidencial de Javier Milei, EN VIVO: horario, quiénes vienen y cronograma del 10 de diciembre". Todo Noticias (in español). 2023-12-10. Retrieved 2023-12-10.
↑ "Mauricio Macri es el nuevo presidente de la República Argentina" (in español). Retrieved December 10, 2015.
↑ Constitución Nacional: Artículo 63
↑ "Constitución nacional - De la cámara de diputados" (in español). senado.gov.ar. Retrieved May 29, 2014.
↑ Ley 24 012 y decreto reglamentario 379/93
↑ "GMMP - Mujeres en la política" (in español). Archived from the original on December 20, 2018. Retrieved August 1, 2008.
↑ Constitución Nacional - Del Senado
↑ Constitución Nacional - De la Auditoría General de la Nación
↑ Constitución Nacional - Del defensor del pueblo
↑ Atribuciones del Poder Ejecutivo (according to the Constitution).
↑ "CORTE SUPREMA DE JUSTICIA DE LA NACIÓN, Ley 26.183, Reducción del número de Jueces que la integran. Disposición Transitoria" (in español). 2006. Retrieved May 21, 2014.
↑ Constitución nacional - Del poder judicial: de su naturaleza y duración
↑ Apuntes sobre el sistema judicial y el Ministerio Público Fiscal de la República Argentina, Ministerio Público de la República Argentina, p. 9.
↑ Ministerio Público de Argentina, Official site.
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↑ ^130.0 ^130.1 Disposiciones transitorias: primera (according to the Constitution).
↑ "Argentina reclama ante La Haya" (in español). BBC Mundo. May 4, 2006. Retrieved July 9, 2008.
↑ ^132.0 ^132.1 "Ley n.º 23.554 de Defensa Nacional". Infoleg (in español).
↑ Libro Blanco de la Defensa Nacional 2023 (PDF) (in español). Ministerio de Defensa. 2023. p. 203.
↑ "Constitución de la Nación Argentina". Infoleg (in español).
↑ Ibidem, p. 51
↑ Gamboa, Maximiliano (January 1, 2025). "Argentina: Los vaivenes de la defensa nacional" (in español).
↑ "Decreto 1112/2024". Boletín Oficial de la República Argentina (in español). December 20, 2024.
↑ Libro Blanco de la Defensa 2023 (PDF) (in español). p. 49.
↑ Fernández Mainardi, Patricia (September 30, 2023). "Entre radares y vuelos: ¿Qué es el Comando Conjunto Aeroespacial y por qué hay que vigilar las fronteras aéreas?". Infobae (in español).
↑ Rivas, Santiago (April 30, 2023). "Fondef: Una ley que el gobierno argentino no cumple". Pucará Defensa (in español).
↑ Libro Blanco de la Defensa 2023 (PDF) (in español). p. 204.
↑ Agustín Larre (June 15, 2021). "Argentina reclama el fin del embargo británico ante la dificultad de adquirir armamento". Infodefensa.com (in español).
↑ Libro Blanco de la Defensa 2015 (in español) (1st ed.). 2015. pp. 81-96-99. ISBN 978-987-3689-22-2.
↑ Roig, Catalina (January 8, 2018). "Menos del 17 % de los miembros de las Fuerzas Armadas son mujeres" (in español).
↑ Libro Blanco de la Defensa 2015 (in español) (1st ed.). 2015. pp. 92 to 97. ISBN 978-987-3689-22-2.
↑ "Argentina hace publica la cantidad de personal militar en sus fuerzas". Zona Militar (in español). March 19, 2018. Retrieved July 21, 2018.
↑ "La Oficina Anticorrupción abrió una investigación patrimonial sobre Echegaray". www.telam.com.ar (in español). Retrieved March 19, 2016.
↑ "DECRETO REGLAMENTARIO de la LEY N.º 2894" (in español). October 28, 2008. Archived from the original on May 31, 2011. Retrieved December 25, 2010.
↑ Subsection 22 of Article 75, "Constitución Nacional". Wikiar (in español). Retrieved September 4, 2019.
↑ "Juventud y vulnerabilidad desde una perspectiva global" (in español). hdrstats.undp.org. Archived from the original on April 24, 2013. Retrieved May 31, 2014.
↑ "Art. 2 de la Constitución de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires". Infoleg.gob.ar (in español). Retrieved April 2, 2021. La Ciudad de Buenos Aires se denomina de este modo o como "Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires"
↑ From 1880 to the present it has also been called the "Federal Capital", although since 1996 it has not officially appeared under that name in either its own Constitution or the National Constitution. Constitución Nacional Argentina; "Elecciones 2017 - Capital Federal: mirá los resultados de las PASO en tu distrito". La Nación (in español). August 14, 2017. Archived from the original on February 6, 2018. Retrieved February 5, 2018.; "Código Nacional Electoral". Infoleg (in español). articles 49, 60, 152, 158 and 164.; "CONSTITUCIÓN DE LA CIUDAD DE BUENOS AIRES" (in español). Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved December 27, 2019.; Constitución Argentina actual. "Ciudad de Buenos Aires". www.buenosaires.gob.ar (in español). Retrieved May 5, 2021.
↑ "Jurisdicción de primer orden" en Argentina
↑ Law No. 27,589.
↑ Mariano Ferrero (2006). "La glocalización en acción: Regionalismo y paradiplomacia en Argentina y el Cono Sur latinoamericano" (PDF) (in español). Revista Electrónica de Estudios Internacionales. p. 9. Archived from the original (pdf) on November 20, 2008. Retrieved June 21, 2008.
↑ Infoleg. Constitución de la Nación Argentina
↑ www.embajada-argentina.org.py Archived 2012-10-29 at the Wayback Machine Embajada Argentina en Paraguay: Datos Generales sobre la República Argentina.
↑ According to INDEC y el Instituto Geográfico Nacional de la República Argentina (.xls file)
↑ CIA. "Argentina - Geografía - Libro Mundial de Hechos" (in español). Retrieved February 17, 2017.
↑ RAE 2014, p. región.
↑ Benedetti 2009, p. 3.
↑ Velázquez 2008, p. 19-21.
↑ Hidrografía Archived 2017-10-18 at the Wayback Machine de Argentina. Mapa de ríos.
↑ This excludes claimed territories such as the Antarctic sector, the Malvinas Islands and other South Atlantic islands.
↑ Sánchez-Dávila, Gabriel (2022-09-15). "Clasificación climática de Sudamérica". ArcGIS StoryMaps (in español). Retrieved 2024-11-06.
↑ Barros, Vicente; Boninsegna, José; Camilloni, Inés; Chidiak, Martina; Magrín, Graciela; Rusticucci, Matilde (2014). "Climate change in Argentina: trends, projections, impacts and adaptation". Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change. 6 (2). John Wiley & Sons: 151–169. doi:10.1002/wcc.316. Retrieved August 28, 2015.
↑ "El Cambio Climatico en Argentina" (PDF) (in español). Secretaría de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved August 20, 2015.
↑ "Cuáles son los planes de la Argentina para enfrentar sus cinco desafíos ambientales más urgentes | RED/ACCIÓN" (in español). 2018-10-23. Retrieved 2022-04-02.
↑ "Las deudas ambientales de la Argentina para 2022". LA NACION (in español). 2022-02-28. Retrieved 2022-04-02.
↑ Legislación sobre símbolos patrios de la República Argentina, Decree No. 10,302, Comunicar imagen. Retrieved January 2, 2014.
↑ https://www.casarosada.gob.ar/nuestro-pais/simbolos-nacionales. Retrieved 05/27/2019
↑ "Día de la Bandera: por qué se celebra hoy y 10 frases para enviar". LA NACION (in español). 2024-06-20. Retrieved 2025-04-06.
↑ "20 de Junio: Día de la Bandera". Argentina.gob.ar (in español). 2018-03-01. Retrieved 2025-04-06.
↑ "Colores y la historia de la bandera argentina" (in español). Archived from the original on April 6, 2009. Retrieved October 16, 2005.
↑ "Bandera Nacional". Argentina.gob.ar (in español). 2020-08-03. Retrieved 2021-07-26.
↑ U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (2018). Argentina, in: The World Factbook in Spanish. United States Government Printing Office, Washington.
↑ "Bandera de Uruguay: ¿por qué tiene franjas azules y blancas y qué significa el Sol de Mayo?". As.com (in español). November 24, 2022.
↑ "Simbolos nacionales de Uruguay" (in español).
↑ ""Argentine National Emblems"". Flags of the World.
↑ Alvez de Assis, Gerardo. La Bandera uruguaya en los siglos XIX y XX. Evolución del diseño entre los años 1830 y 1930.
↑ Símbolo patrio: la incógnita del escudo Archived 2011-03-12 at the Wayback Machine, news report published in the newspaper La Nación on the similarity between the national coat of arms and the one apparently shown on a French safe-conduct.
↑ "Ministerio de Educación: 22 de noviembre, Día de la Flor Nacional: "El Ceibo"" (in español). Retrieved August 6, 2008.
↑ See oni.escuelas.edu.ar (2000) Archived 2017-10-06 at the Wayback Machine, oni.escuelas.edu.ar (2002) Archived 2017-07-03 at the Wayback Machine, argentinaxplora.com, viajoporargentina.com, Ecoloquia.com. Retrieved August 6, 2008.
↑ "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". IMF. Retrieved 2024-01-29.
↑ "La Argentina, entre los países con más recursos naturales". www.lanacion.com.ar (in español). Retrieved March 25, 2016.
↑ Destape, El (2022-08-21). "La economía del conocimiento sigue marcando récords de exportación". www.eldestapeweb.com (in español). Retrieved 2022-08-21.
↑ ""Argentina, potencia agroalimentaria"". Revista RIA (in español). Retrieved March 25, 2016.
↑ "La Argentina, en el top ten nuclear - Economía". www.laprensa.com.ar (in español). Retrieved March 25, 2016.
↑ Ornstein, Roberto (January/June 2010). "El desarrollo nuclear argentino: 60 años de una historia exitosa" (PDF). CNEA (in español). 10 (37–38). {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
↑ Drewes, Lorena (2014). El sector espacial argentino: Instituciones referentes, proveedoresy desafíos (PDF) (in español). Benavidez: ARSAT. ISBN 978-987-45569-0-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 23, 2015. Retrieved February 1, 2016.
↑ "Una empresa líder en tecnología destacó el rol de Argentina". INFOnews (in español). Retrieved March 25, 2016.
↑ "Los principales logros de la ciencia argentina". Télam - Agencia Nacional de Noticias (in español). December 5, 2012. Archived from the original on 2012-12-09. Retrieved March 25, 2016.
↑ "Tasa de alfabetización, total de adultos (% de personas de 15 años o más)". Instituto de Estadística de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura (UNESCO) (in español). Banco Mundial.
↑ "La Argentina, con las tasas educativas más altas de la región". www.lanacion.com.ar (in español). Archived from the original on January 30, 2017. Retrieved March 25, 2016.
↑ "Argentina - Estadísticas" (in español). UNICEF.
↑ "Alfabetismo: Argentina aprobada, la Ciudad recursa". Diario Registrado (Buenos Aires) (in español). June 18, 2013.
↑ "La Argentina es el segundo país con mayor sindicalización de Sudamérica". IProfesional (in español). October 29, 2018.
↑ "Argentina está entre los países más sindicalizados del mundo". Clarín (in español). August 29, 2005.
↑ "Argentina deja de ser mercado emergente y desciende a categoría "standalone"". www.efe.com (in español). Retrieved 2021-11-01.
↑ de 2021, 24 de Junio. "Qué significa que Argentina sea una economía "standalone", una categoría financiera que comparte ahora con Zimbabwe y Botsuana". infobae (in español). Retrieved 2021-11-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
↑ Carrio, Tomas. "MSCI: la Argentina dejó de ser mercado emergente". www.cronista.com (in español). Retrieved 2021-11-01.
↑ Pagni, Carlos (2021-06-29). "Standalone, la Argentina fuera de categoría". La Nación (in español). ISSN 0325-0946. Retrieved 2021-11-01.
↑ http://datosestimaciones.magyp.gob.ar
↑ "Argentina Population". Index Mundi. Retrieved 2014-04-10.
↑ Secretaría de Agricultura, Ganadería, Pesca y Alimentación (SAGPyA), Argentina. Base de datos Cultivos: Soja, campaña 2006/2007.
↑ «Gracias a la soja, Argentina lidera el comercio mundial de granos» Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine, article of September 14, 2015, in the newspaper Ámbito Financiero (Buenos Aires).
↑ "Agricultura, valor agregado (% del PIB)". The World Bank: Data (in español).
↑ Ignacio Ostera (2016-07-14). "Pese a quita de retenciones, la minería y la agricultura destruyeron empleo". BAE Negocios (in español). Archived from the original on 2016-07-16.
↑ "South America - Argentina". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 2008-08-13. Retrieved 2015-12-30.
↑ "Argentina: Población rural, porcentaje". TheGlobalEconomy.com (in español).
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↑ Argentina en 2018, by FAO
↑ Azúcar
↑ Trigo e cevada tem colheita recorde na safra 2018/19 argentina
↑ "Sunflower Culture" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-10-10. Retrieved 2020-10-03.
↑ Argentina production in 2018, by FAO
↑ "Datos ganaderos argentinos, por FAO Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la alimentación y la Agricultura" (in español).
↑ Major Wine Producers
↑ A Produção de Vinhos na América do Sul, pag 10
↑ Ministerio de Economía de la Nación. Sector externo. Table 5.2. Data for the years 1991–2007, Información Económica.
↑ Klitenik, Fabio; Mira, Pablo; Moldovan, Pablo (2009). "El Mercado Eléctrico Argentino" (PDF). Informe Económico N.º 70 - Dirección Nacional de Programación Macroeconómica (in español). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 4, 2016. Retrieved March 22, 2016.
↑ "The World Factbook. Natural gas - production". Archived from the original on March 15, 2016. Retrieved June 18, 2021.
↑ Annual petroleum and other liquids production
↑ RENEWABLE CAPACITY STATISTICS 2021
↑ Argentina invierte miles de millones para transformar los vientos patagónicos en energía
↑ ^226.0 ^226.1 Cámara Administradora del Mercado Mayorista Eléctrico - Informe Anual 2014
↑ CAMMESA Informe Anual Año 2014
↑ Herrera Vegas, Rodrigo (January 27, 2012). "El mar como fuente de energía eléctrica renovable" (in español). Retrieved March 22, 2016.
↑ Bär, Nora (December 16, 2014). "Instalaron dos boyas frente a las costas patagónicas para medir la energía maremotriz" (in español). Retrieved March 22, 2016.
↑ "Centrales Nucleares | CNEA". www.cnea.gov.ar (in español). Retrieved June 21, 2016.
↑ Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable - Energía Geotérmica
↑ Asociación de Distribuidores de Energía Eléctrica de la República Argentina (ADEERA) - Datos característicos 2014
↑ Instituto Argentino del Petróleo y el Gas Informe Anual 2014
↑ López Anadón, Ernesto (2015). "¿Por qué hablar de hidrocarburos de reservorios no convencionales?". In Instituto Argentino del Petróleo y del Gas (ed.). El abecé de los Hidrocarburos en Reservorios No Convencionales (in español) (4th ed.). p. 3. ISBN 978-987-9139-77-6. Retrieved March 22, 2016. …la Agencia de Información de Energía de los Estados Unidos ubicó a la Argentina en el segundo puesto de la lista de países poseedores de los mayores recursos técnicamente recuperables…
↑ United Nations (UN). "Informe sobre migraciones en Argentina" (PDF) (in español). Cámara Argentina de Comercio (CAC). Archived from the original (PDF) on November 24, 2021. Retrieved September 27, 2019.
↑ United Nations (UN) (2017). "Argentina - Inmigración" (in español). Retrieved September 28, 2019.
↑ Constanza Lambertucci. "La Argentina es el país de América Latina con más inmigrantes" (in español). Chequeado. Retrieved April 21, 2015.
↑ Argentina es el país de América Latina con más inmigrantes Archived February 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine.
↑ Argentina, el país con mayor número de inmigrantes de Latinoamérica - Diario Los Andes.
↑ "Datos sociodemográficos por país de nacimiento". RENAPER - Dirección Nacional de Población (in español). Retrieved 2023-11-15.
↑ "Carnaval de Gualeguaychú" (in español). carnavales.com.ar. Archived from the original on June 20, 2014. Retrieved June 11, 2014.

Bibliography

Abad de Santillán, Diego (1965). Historia Argentina (in español). Buenos Aires: TEA (Tipográfica Editora Argentina).
Alonso, Roberto; Elisalde; Vázquez, Enrique (1994). Historia Argentina y el Mundo Contemporáneo (in español). Buenos Aires: Editorial Aique. ISBN 950-701-203-6.
Gerchunoff, Pablo; Llach, Lucas (1998). El ciclo de la ilusión y el desencanto: un siglo de políticas económicas argentinas (in español). Buenos Aires: Ariel. ISBN 950-9122-57-2.
Guía Turística Argentina (in español). Buenos Aires: Automóvil Club Argentino. 2008–2009. ISBN 978-987-529046-4.
Lopresti, Roberto P (1998). Constitución Argentina comentada (in español). Buenos Aires: Unilat. ISBN 987-96049-3-8.
Luna, Félix (1994). Breve historia de los argentinos (in español). Buenos Aires: Planeta/Espejo de la Argentina. ISBN 950-742-415-6.

External links

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Argentina

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Official portal of the Argentine State (in Spanish)
Official site of the Presidency of the Nation (in Spanish)
Official site of the Secretariat of Tourism (in Spanish)
Country profiles: Argentina
Argentine Academy of Letters: "Sobre el uso del artículo la ante el nombre de nuestro país y de algunas provincias de la Argentina" (page 8) (in Spanish)

[art35-1] Article 35 of the Constitution of the Argentine Nation recognizes United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, Argentine Republic and Argentine Confederation as official names, and establishes the use of the words Argentine Nation in the drafting and enactment of laws.

[2] This motto has never been officially declared as such. It was used from 1813 to 1841 in the minting of coins together with the National Coat of Arms. See "Asamblea General Constituyente - Sesión del 12 de marzo de 1813". Ministerio de Economía de la Nación (in español). Archived from the original on January 4, 2014. Later abandoned, it was reincorporated into Argentine numismatics in 1992 and remains in use today.
• Pezzano, Luciano. "En Unión Y Libertad" (PDF). Jornario de las XXIV Jornadas Nacionales de Numismática y Medallística, Vol. II. Santiago del Estero (in español). Archived from the original (PDF) on January 4, 2014. Retrieved June 6, 2016.
• Instituto de Estudios Iberoamericanos, Documentos para la historia de la bandera argentina. Page 134.
• Fernández, Sebastián Martín (June 6, 2016). "La Cultura como Factor de Poder de un Estado" (PDF). Centro Argentino de Estudios Internacionales (in español). p. 17. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 4, 2014.

[3] According to data from the INDEC.

[miembro-5] 4.0 ^4.1 ^4.2 As an Associate in the CAN and CAF. As a Permanent Observer in the Pacific Alliance.

[7] There is an unproven conjecture, supported by one historiographical school, which holds that the provinces under the military protection of José Gervasio Artigas (Federal League) proclaimed national independence at the so-called Congress of the East on June 29, 1815.

[8] Although the constitution was enacted in 1853, it was not until 1861 that it was promulgated throughout the national territory, since in 1852 the Province of Buenos Aires declared itself independent from the Confederation, and it was not until 1861 that it joined the Argentine Republic.

[9] Most recent constitutional reform.

[10] This corresponds to the American continental area, not including the Malvinas Islands. Including them, it would be 2,791,810 km². Adding the Antarctic continental area (Argentine Antarctica and the remaining islands of the South Atlantic Islands) of 969,464 km², the total area would rise to 3,761,274 km² (according to data from the National Geographic Institute of the Argentine Republic).

[15] Argentina has another currency that is legal tender, the Peso Oro Sellado, created in 1881 by Law 1130. Although it ceased to be issued in 1929, it was never repealed. Its use is currently limited, and the Central Bank publishes its value quarterly, measured in Argentine pesos.

[art352-18] Article 35 of the Constitution of the Argentine Nation recognizes United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, Argentine Republic and Argentine Confederation as official names, and establishes the use of the words Argentine Nation in the drafting and enactment of laws.

[20] Since 2020 Argentina has had 25 federal capitals, of which the city of Buenos Aires is the "principal capital"; the rest are "alternate capitals," located one in each province, except for the Province of Buenos Aires, where two alternate capitals are located. Law 27589.

[53] The provinces of the Argentine Littoral and the Oriental Province (united in the Federal League under the protectorate of José Artigas) were not represented. Nor were Paraguay—already de facto independent since 1811—or most of Upper Peru.

[55] When it was sworn on July 21, 1816, and in order to dispel rumors of an intention to submit to Portugal, the act approved on July 9 was revised in a secret session and the following phrase was used in the oath formula: "[…] independence from the King of Spain Ferdinand VII, his successors and metropolis, and from every other foreign domination." See "19 de julio: El acta se modifica" (in español). Ministerio de educación. Archived from the original on May 31, 2011. Retrieved June 27, 2008.

[59] Strictly speaking, not all of Rosas's enemies advocated a unitarian system of government, but Rosista propaganda successfully lumped them all together under a single name, which was repugnant to the federalists of the interior provinces.

[71] In 1945, José Luis Torres wrote a book titled La Década Infame, in which he critically analyzes this period. The term has since been widely adopted to designate the period.

[95] Any division of Argentine history is arbitrary, and there are at least as many as there are historians who have attempted one. This article uses a division into three historical stages of relatively similar length from the May Revolution to the present: a formative stage, during which the political and geographical structure of present-day Argentina and the agro-export economic model were established; a second stage, in which that model was not questioned except in marginal aspects, and conflicts were generally of a political-ideological kind; and a third stage, in which the agro-export model was systematically called into question, and during which the three parties that to date have dominated the political scene were active: Radicalism, Peronism and liberalism, which during most of this cycle could only reach power through de facto governments. In this scheme, this last stage has been divided into four periods of twenty years each—a division made for reasons of symmetry, almost completely arbitrary—plus a period referring to current history, since the triumph of La Libertad Avanza, an economically libertarian and socially conservative party.

[154] Known until 2024 as the "Operational Command of the Armed Forces".

[Idioma-4] "El País" (in español). Retrieved July 29, 2016.

[6] "9 de Julio: ¿Dónde está el acta original de la Declaración de la Independencia?". Página 12 (in español). July 9, 2022.

[geografía-11] 3.0 ^3.1 ^3.2 ^3.3 CIA. "Argentina - Geografía - Libro Mundial de Hechos" (in español). Retrieved February 17, 2017.

[imfapr2022-12] 4.0 ^4.1 ^4.2 ^4.3 "Argentina and the IMF". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved April 20, 2024.

[13] "Índice de Gini - Argentina" (in español). World Bank. Retrieved June 4, 2022.

[14] United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), ed. (2022). "Human Development Insights". Retrieved March 26, 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)

[16] International Telecommunication Union. "Table of International Call Sign Series (Appendix 42 to the RR)". Archived from the original on May 2, 2012. Retrieved March 30, 2020.

[P12-CENSO-17] "El INDEC difundió los resultados provisionales Censo 2022: 4 datos claves sobre la población argentina". Página/12 (in español). Retrieved January 31, 2023. La población argentina tiene actualmente 46.044.703 habitantes, es decir, 5.927.607 de personas más que las relevadas en el último censo, en 2010. En mayo de 2022, pocos días después del relevamiento, el INDEC había difundido los primeros resultados preliminares, que indicaban que la población argentina tenía 47.327.407 habitantes. Sin embargo el dato fue corregido esta tarde. {{cite news}}: line feed character in |title= at position 47 (help)

[19] Forum of Government Accounting Offices of Latin America; Inter-American Development Bank, eds. (August 2019). "Contabilidad gubernamental en América Latina y convergencias a las normas internacionales de contabilidad del sector público (NICSP)" (PDF) (in español). p. 11. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 3, 2022. Retrieved July 9, 2022.

[21] [1]
• [2]

[Barra-22] Barra, Rodolfo C. (2002). "El status jurídico de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires". Revista Argentina del Régimen de la Administración Pública (in español). XXIV (285): 13–21.

[23] Conceição, Pedro (2023). "Human Development 2023/2024" (PDF). Retrieved March 17, 2024. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[IDH2020-24] UNDP (2020). "Human Development Report 2020" (pdf).

[25] Law No. 26.206 of 2005.

[26] "Gasto público en educación, total (% del PIB). Argentina. UNESCO". Banco Mundial (in español). Retrieved February 13, 2020.

[27] "Tasa de alfabetización, total de adultos (% de personas de 15 años o más). Argentina. UNESCO". Banco Mundial (in español). Retrieved February 13, 2020.

[28] "Gasto en salud en Argentina. Análisis para 2017-2021" (PDF). Ministerio de Salud (in español). November 2023. Entre 2017 y 2021, el gasto total en salud en relación con el PBI se mantuvo relativamente estable en torno al 10%; con un máximo en 2020 de 10,9% y el mínimo en 2019 del 10,1%

[29] "Gross domestic product 2019" (PDF). World Development Indicators database. World Bank. December 15, 2017.

[30] Cardozo, Jorge. "Instituto Balseiro Bariloche entre los 10 mejores del Mundo | Visitemos Misiones". www.visitemosmisiones.com (in español). Retrieved February 13, 2018.

[31] Argentina lanza el primer satélite de telecomunicaciones de la región por Alejandro Rebossio, newspaper [El País], October 17, 2014 (in Spanish)

[32] S.A., Web Financial Group,. "Las siete economías más grandes de Latinoamérica: grandes cambios en el ranking de la región". BOLSAMANIA (in español). Retrieved June 3, 2018.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[33] John Broman (1996). Popular Development: Rethinking the Theory and Practice of Development. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 81. ISBN 1-557-86316-4.

[COPLA-34] "El límite más extenso de la Argentina y nuestra frontera con la humanidad" (PDF). COPLA (in español). 2016.

[Chebez-35] Chebez, Juan Carlos (2005). Guía de las reservas naturales de la Argentina (in español). Vol. Patagonia. Buenos Aires: Albatros. p. 22. ISBN 9502410564.

[Superficie-36] "Superficie de la República Argentina". Territorio/geografía (in español). Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos. Archived from the original (XLS) on November 18, 2008. Retrieved June 19, 2008. {{cite web}}: External link in |website= (help).

[37] "Día exacto de la Revolución de Mayo" (in español). Archived from the original on July 20, 2011.

[38] Día exacto de la Declaración de la Independencia de la Argentina (in Spanish)

[:7-39] 28.0 ^28.1 ^28.2 ^28.3 "Origen del nombre: ¿Por qué Argentina?". Instituto Geográfico Nacional (Argentina) (in español). Retrieved September 1, 2020.

[40] "Sobre el uso del artículo ante el nombre de nuestro país y de algunas provincias de la Argentina". Academia Argentina de Letras (in español).

[41] "argentino". Diccionario de la lengua española (in español).

[42] Gómez de Silva, Guido (2009) Breve Diccionario Etimológico de la Lengua Española, 2nd edition, s. v. Argentina; ISBN 978-968-16-5543-3.

[43] argentum in Lewis, Charlton T. and Short, Charles (1879) A Latin Dictionary, Oxford: Clarendon Press.

[44] Ringe, Donald (2006) From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic (A Linguistic History of English; 1), Oxford: Oxford University Press s. v. *h₂erǵ-

[45] Wodtko, Dagmar S.; Irslinger, Britta; Schneider, Carolin (2008), "*h₂erg̑-", in Nomina im indogermanischen Lexikon [Nouns in the Indo-European Lexicon] (in German), Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter, pages 317-322

[46] Mallory, James P. (1984), "Proto-Indo-European Silver", in Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung, volume 1, number 97, Göttingen: Vandenhoek und Ruprecht,

[47] Traba, Juan. Origen de la palabra «argentina». Rosario: Escuela de Artes Gráficas del Colegio San José, 1985.

[:6-48] 37.0 ^37.1 Claudia Peiró. "La larga y azarosa historia de cómo llegamos a llamarnos "Argentina"". Infobae (in español).

[49] Gonzalo Prieto - (October 31, 2016). "La historia de Argentina vista a través de los mapas". Geografía Infinita (in español).

[50] "Origen del nombre: ¿Por qué Argentina?". Instituto Geográfico Nacional (Argentina) (in español).

[51] Rosenblat, Ángel (1964). El nombre de la Argentina. Buenos Aires: Eudeba Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires.

[52] El general Artigas y su época: Apuntes documentados para la historia oriental, Volume 1, pp. 221–222. Author: Justo Maeso. Publisher: Tip. oriental de Peña y Roustan, 1885.

[54] "El acta de la independencia" (in español). Ministerio de educación. Archived from the original on May 31, 2011. Retrieved July 5, 2008.

[56] "Constitución de Uruguay de 1830" (in español). cervantesvirtual.com. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved May 18, 2014.

[57] Constitution of the Argentine Nation, article 35: "The denominations successively adopted from 1810 to the present, namely: United Provinces of the Río de la Plata; Argentine Republic, Argentine Confederation, shall henceforth be official names, used interchangeably, for the designation of the government and territory of the provinces, the words 'Argentine Nation' being employed in the drafting and enactment of laws."

[FOOTNOTELuna1994capítulo_«Hacia_la_organización_nacional_-_Rosas»-58] Luna 1994, capítulo «Hacia la organización nacional - Rosas».

[60] Gálvez, Manuel (May 2007). Vida de Juan Manuel de Rosas (in español). Claridad. p. 575. ISBN 978-950-620-208-8.

[61] Bareiro Saguier, Rubén (March 2, 2007), El tratado de la 'Cuádruple' Alianza (in español), Paraguay: Última Hora, retrieved December 30, 2015

[62] Felipe Pigna. "La guerra de la Triple Alianza" (in español). El Historiador. Archived from the original on June 5, 2014. Retrieved July 6, 2008.

[Triple-63] 49.0 ^49.1 «Guerra de la Triple Alianza», article in the Enciclopedia Microsoft® Encarta® Online, 2008. Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

[64] Bayer, Osvaldo: «Pulgas y garrapatas», Página/12, December 4, 2004. Retrieved December 4, 2013.
«Ahora atacan los Grondona», Página/12, October 15, 2011. Retrieved December 4, 2013.

[65] Maeder, Ernesto J. A. (1997). "VIII". Historia del Chaco (in español). Editorial Plus Ultra. p. 105. ISBN 950-21-1256-3.

[66] "Breve historia de los pueblos aborígenes en Argentina" (in español). Ministerio de Educación de Argentina. Archived from the original on February 21, 2018. Retrieved February 20, 2018.

[67] ""Rico como un argentino", el surgimiento de una nación moderna" (in español). Facultad de Agronomía. Archived from the original on September 17, 2008. Retrieved July 6, 2008.

[68] The Argentine population is taken from the population censuses of 1869 (1,877,490) and 2001 (36,260,130), and that of 1930 from Ortiz, Ricardo M. (1974), Historia económica de la Argentina. Buenos Aires: Plus Ultra, p. 508. The world population is taken from: that of 1870 from Meadows, Donella H. et al. (1975). Los límites del crecimiento. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica, p. 51 (1,400 million); that of 1930 from "Historical Estimates of World Population" Archived 2011-01-02 at the Wayback Machine of the United States Census Bureau (2,070,000,000); that of 2001 from Total Midyear Population for the World: 1950-2050, of the United States Census Bureau (6,146,294,339).

[LFernández-69] "Lucas Fernández, precursor del socialismo en el Río de la Plata". Argenpress (in español). August 31, 2002. {{cite web}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)
Falcón, Ricardo (2014). "Los trabajadores y el mundo del trabajo". In Bonaudo, Marta (ed.). Liberalismo, Estado y orden burgués (1852-1880). Nueva Historia Argentina (in español). Sudamericana. ISBN 9500750139.

[FOOTNOTELuna1994capítulo_«La_modelación_de_la_Argentina_moderna»-70] Luna 1994, capítulo «La modelación de la Argentina moderna».

[72] Apuntes agroeconómicos de la UBA: Industrialización (argentina) por sustitución de las importaciones.

[argentina.ar-73] 58.0 ^58.1 "Evita fue declarada "Mujer del Bicentenario"" (in español). diariocol.com.ar. Archived from the original on May 18, 2014. Retrieved May 18, 2014.

[FerminChavez-74] 59.0 ^59.1 "Revolución Libertadora: La cuarta invasión inglesa" (in español). Revista Primera Plana N.º 507. September 13, 1973. Archived from the original on May 3, 2012.

[75] Frigerio, José Oscar (October 1984). "Perón y la Iglesia. Historia de un conflicto inútil". Todo es Historia (in español) (210). Buenos Aires: 35. ISSN 0040-8611. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help)

[Bevilacqua-76] "Hay que matar a Perón" (in español). Pedro Bevilacqua. February 16, 2012. Archived from the original on October 15, 2012.

[Portugheis-Muertos-77] Elsa Portugheis (coord.) (2010). "Atentado del 15 de abril de 1953". Bombardeo del 16 de junio de 1955 (PDF) (in español). Buenos Aires: Secretaría de Derechos Humanos de la Nación Argentina. pp. 135–142.

[78] Pigna, Felipe. "Arturo Frondizi" (in español). El Historiador. Archived from the original on October 14, 2009. Retrieved October 29, 2013.

[79] "Capítulo 66: La revolución argentina (1966-1973)" (in español). Universidad del CEMA. Archived from the original on July 2, 2008. Retrieved July 6, 2008.

[80] Susana Viau (January 13, 2007). ""Una débil mujer"" (in español). Página/12. Retrieved July 6, 2008.

[81] Comas, José (June 14, 1989). "Alfonsín dimitirá 5 meses antes del fin de su mandato". El País (in español).

[82] Delich, Francisco (1997). El desempleo de masas en la Argentina (in español). Buenos Aires: Norma. ISBN 9789501399042. • The murder rate increased by 400% between 1989 and 1996. Rodríguez, Fernando (July 27, 2001). "La violencia es realidad y sensación en la Argentina". La Nación (in español). Retrieved March 2, 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)

[83] "Menem se alineó contra Saddam. Afirmó que la Argentina respaldará las acciones de Estados Unidos o de las Naciones Unidas". La Nación (in español). February 7, 1998. Archived from the original on December 12, 2016. Retrieved March 5, 2016. • "Las dos fragatas de Menem". Clarín (in español). January 30, 2003. Retrieved March 5, 2016.

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[85] Santoro, Daniel (2001). Venta de armas: hombres de Menem : la investigación periodística que reveló el escándalo del tráfico a Ecuador y Croacia (in español). Buenos Aires: Planeta. ISBN 9789504907978.

[86] Borón, Ernesto; Massetti, Astor; Piva, Adrián (2007). Movimientos sociales y acción colectiva en la Argentina de hoy (in español). Argentina: Prometeo. ISBN 987574204X. {{cite book}}: |first4= missing |last4= (help)

[87] Blázquez, Jorge y Sebastián, Miguel (December 2003). "El Impacto de la crisis argentina sobre la economía española" (PDF) (in español). Real Instituto Elcano. Archived from the original (pdf) on September 24, 2015. Retrieved June 21, 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

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[121] ttp://web.archive.org/web/20230615075838/https://www.telam.com.ar/notas/201603/141251-pago-holdouts-fondos-buitre-senado-debate.html • Los 10 grandes cambios que ya logró Mauricio Macri

[122] "El Gobierno emitió un bono a 100 años". Pagina12 (in español). June 19, 2017.

[123] "La deuda externa aumentó a 216 351 millones de dólares". Infobae (in español). December 22, 2017.

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[127] «Gobiernos de provincia», Constitución Nacional, see Article 121.

[128] Constitución nacional - De la forma y tiempo de la elección del presidente y vicepresidente de la Nación

[129] "Constitución Nacional Capítulo I: De su naturaleza y duración" (in español). Retrieved May 17, 2014.

[130] "Segunda Parte: Autoridades de la Nación" (in español). Archived from the original on May 18, 2014. Retrieved May 17, 2014.

[131] "Asunción presidencial de Javier Milei, EN VIVO: horario, quiénes vienen y cronograma del 10 de diciembre". Todo Noticias (in español). 2023-12-10. Retrieved 2023-12-10.

[132] "Mauricio Macri es el nuevo presidente de la República Argentina" (in español). Retrieved December 10, 2015.

[133] Constitución Nacional: Artículo 63

[134] "Constitución nacional - De la cámara de diputados" (in español). senado.gov.ar. Retrieved May 29, 2014.

[135] Ley 24 012 y decreto reglamentario 379/93

[136] "GMMP - Mujeres en la política" (in español). Archived from the original on December 20, 2018. Retrieved August 1, 2008.

[137] Constitución Nacional - Del Senado

[138] Constitución Nacional - De la Auditoría General de la Nación

[139] Constitución Nacional - Del defensor del pueblo

[AtribucionesPE-140] Atribuciones del Poder Ejecutivo (according to the Constitution).

[141] "CORTE SUPREMA DE JUSTICIA DE LA NACIÓN, Ley 26.183, Reducción del número de Jueces que la integran. Disposición Transitoria" (in español). 2006. Retrieved May 21, 2014.

[142] Constitución nacional - Del poder judicial: de su naturaleza y duración

[143] Apuntes sobre el sistema judicial y el Ministerio Público Fiscal de la República Argentina, Ministerio Público de la República Argentina, p. 9.

[144] Ministerio Público de Argentina, Official site.

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[ley-148] 132.0 ^132.1 "Ley n.º 23.554 de Defensa Nacional". Infoleg (in español).

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[150] "Constitución de la Nación Argentina". Infoleg (in español).

[151] Ibidem, p. 51

[vaivenes-152] Gamboa, Maximiliano (January 1, 2025). "Argentina: Los vaivenes de la defensa nacional" (in español).

[decreto24-153] "Decreto 1112/2024". Boletín Oficial de la República Argentina (in español). December 20, 2024.

[dup-0-98-155] Libro Blanco de la Defensa 2023 (PDF) (in español). p. 49.

[156] Fernández Mainardi, Patricia (September 30, 2023). "Entre radares y vuelos: ¿Qué es el Comando Conjunto Aeroespacial y por qué hay que vigilar las fronteras aéreas?". Infobae (in español).

[fondef-157] Rivas, Santiago (April 30, 2023). "Fondef: Una ley que el gobierno argentino no cumple". Pucará Defensa (in español).

[158] Libro Blanco de la Defensa 2023 (PDF) (in español). p. 204.

[159] Agustín Larre (June 15, 2021). "Argentina reclama el fin del embargo británico ante la dificultad de adquirir armamento". Infodefensa.com (in español).

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[161] Roig, Catalina (January 8, 2018). "Menos del 17 % de los miembros de las Fuerzas Armadas son mujeres" (in español).

[162] Libro Blanco de la Defensa 2015 (in español) (1st ed.). 2015. pp. 92 to 97. ISBN 978-987-3689-22-2.

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[165] "DECRETO REGLAMENTARIO de la LEY N.º 2894" (in español). October 28, 2008. Archived from the original on May 31, 2011. Retrieved December 25, 2010.

[166] Subsection 22 of Article 75, "Constitución Nacional". Wikiar (in español). Retrieved September 4, 2019.

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[169] From 1880 to the present it has also been called the "Federal Capital", although since 1996 it has not officially appeared under that name in either its own Constitution or the National Constitution. Constitución Nacional Argentina; "Elecciones 2017 - Capital Federal: mirá los resultados de las PASO en tu distrito". La Nación (in español). August 14, 2017. Archived from the original on February 6, 2018. Retrieved February 5, 2018.; "Código Nacional Electoral". Infoleg (in español). articles 49, 60, 152, 158 and 164.; "CONSTITUCIÓN DE LA CIUDAD DE BUENOS AIRES" (in español). Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved December 27, 2019.; Constitución Argentina actual. "Ciudad de Buenos Aires". www.buenosaires.gob.ar (in español). Retrieved May 5, 2021.

[170] "Jurisdicción de primer orden" en Argentina

[171] Law No. 27,589.

[172] Mariano Ferrero (2006). "La glocalización en acción: Regionalismo y paradiplomacia en Argentina y el Cono Sur latinoamericano" (PDF) (in español). Revista Electrónica de Estudios Internacionales. p. 9. Archived from the original (pdf) on November 20, 2008. Retrieved June 21, 2008.

[173] Infoleg. Constitución de la Nación Argentina

[174] www.embajada-argentina.org.py Archived 2012-10-29 at the Wayback Machine Embajada Argentina en Paraguay: Datos Generales sobre la República Argentina.

[175] According to INDEC y el Instituto Geográfico Nacional de la República Argentina (.xls file)

[176] CIA. "Argentina - Geografía - Libro Mundial de Hechos" (in español). Retrieved February 17, 2017.

[FOOTNOTERAE2014región-177] RAE 2014, p. región.

[FOOTNOTEBenedetti20093-178] Benedetti 2009, p. 3.

[FOOTNOTEVelázquez200819-21-179] Velázquez 2008, p. 19-21.

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[181] This excludes claimed territories such as the Antarctic sector, the Malvinas Islands and other South Atlantic islands.

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[207] Drewes, Lorena (2014). El sector espacial argentino: Instituciones referentes, proveedoresy desafíos (PDF) (in español). Benavidez: ARSAT. ISBN 978-987-45569-0-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 23, 2015. Retrieved February 1, 2016.

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[210] "Tasa de alfabetización, total de adultos (% de personas de 15 años o más)". Instituto de Estadística de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura (UNESCO) (in español). Banco Mundial.

[211] "La Argentina, con las tasas educativas más altas de la región". www.lanacion.com.ar (in español). Archived from the original on January 30, 2017. Retrieved March 25, 2016.

[212] "Argentina - Estadísticas" (in español). UNICEF.

[213] "Alfabetismo: Argentina aprobada, la Ciudad recursa". Diario Registrado (Buenos Aires) (in español). June 18, 2013.

[214] "La Argentina es el segundo país con mayor sindicalización de Sudamérica". IProfesional (in español). October 29, 2018.

[215] "Argentina está entre los países más sindicalizados del mundo". Clarín (in español). August 29, 2005.

[216] "Argentina deja de ser mercado emergente y desciende a categoría "standalone"". www.efe.com (in español). Retrieved 2021-11-01.

[217] 2021, 24 de Junio. "Qué significa que Argentina sea una economía "standalone", una categoría financiera que comparte ahora con Zimbabwe y Botsuana". infobae (in español). Retrieved 2021-11-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

[218] Carrio, Tomas. "MSCI: la Argentina dejó de ser mercado emergente". www.cronista.com (in español). Retrieved 2021-11-01.

[219] Pagni, Carlos (2021-06-29). "Standalone, la Argentina fuera de categoría". La Nación (in español). ISSN 0325-0946. Retrieved 2021-11-01.

[220] ttp://datosestimaciones.magyp.gob.ar

[indexmundi2-221] "Argentina Population". Index Mundi. Retrieved 2014-04-10.

[222] Secretaría de Agricultura, Ganadería, Pesca y Alimentación (SAGPyA), Argentina. Base de datos Cultivos: Soja, campaña 2006/2007.

[223] «Gracias a la soja, Argentina lidera el comercio mundial de granos» Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine, article of September 14, 2015, in the newspaper Ámbito Financiero (Buenos Aires).

[224] "Agricultura, valor agregado (% del PIB)". The World Bank: Data (in español).

[diariobae.com-225] Ignacio Ostera (2016-07-14). "Pese a quita de retenciones, la minería y la agricultura destruyeron empleo". BAE Negocios (in español). Archived from the original on 2016-07-16.

[cia.gov-226] "South America - Argentina". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 2008-08-13. Retrieved 2015-12-30.

[227] "Argentina: Población rural, porcentaje". TheGlobalEconomy.com (in español).

[228] "Población rural (% de la población total)". The World Bank: Data (in español).

[229] Argentina en 2018, by FAO

[230] Azúcar

[231] Trigo e cevada tem colheita recorde na safra 2018/19 argentina

[232] "Sunflower Culture" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-10-10. Retrieved 2020-10-03.

[233] Argentina production in 2018, by FAO

[234] "Datos ganaderos argentinos, por FAO Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la alimentación y la Agricultura" (in español).

[235] Major Wine Producers

[236] A Produção de Vinhos na América do Sul, pag 10

[237] Ministerio de Economía de la Nación. Sector externo. Table 5.2. Data for the years 1991–2007, Información Económica.

[238] Klitenik, Fabio; Mira, Pablo; Moldovan, Pablo (2009). "El Mercado Eléctrico Argentino" (PDF). Informe Económico N.º 70 - Dirección Nacional de Programación Macroeconómica (in español). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 4, 2016. Retrieved March 22, 2016.

[239] "The World Factbook. Natural gas - production". Archived from the original on March 15, 2016. Retrieved June 18, 2021.

[240] Annual petroleum and other liquids production

[241] RENEWABLE CAPACITY STATISTICS 2021

[242] Argentina invierte miles de millones para transformar los vientos patagónicos en energía

[CAM-243] 226.0 ^226.1 Cámara Administradora del Mercado Mayorista Eléctrico - Informe Anual 2014

[244] CAMMESA Informe Anual Año 2014

[245] Herrera Vegas, Rodrigo (January 27, 2012). "El mar como fuente de energía eléctrica renovable" (in español). Retrieved March 22, 2016.

[246] Bär, Nora (December 16, 2014). "Instalaron dos boyas frente a las costas patagónicas para medir la energía maremotriz" (in español). Retrieved March 22, 2016.

[247] "Centrales Nucleares | CNEA". www.cnea.gov.ar (in español). Retrieved June 21, 2016.

[248] Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable - Energía Geotérmica

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[250] Instituto Argentino del Petróleo y el Gas Informe Anual 2014

[251] López Anadón, Ernesto (2015). "¿Por qué hablar de hidrocarburos de reservorios no convencionales?". In Instituto Argentino del Petróleo y del Gas (ed.). El abecé de los Hidrocarburos en Reservorios No Convencionales (in español) (4th ed.). p. 3. ISBN 978-987-9139-77-6. Retrieved March 22, 2016. …la Agencia de Información de Energía de los Estados Unidos ubicó a la Argentina en el segundo puesto de la lista de países poseedores de los mayores recursos técnicamente recuperables…

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Argentine Republic^{[lower-alpha 1]}
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: En Unión y Libertad "In Union and Freedom"^{[lower-alpha 2]}
Anthem: Himno Nacional Argentino "Argentine National Anthem" File:Himno Nacional Argentino instrumental.ogg
Territory controlled by the Argentine Republic in dark green; territory claimed but not controlled in light green.
Capital	Buenos Aires Coat of arms of the City of Buenos Aires Population: 2,890,151^{[lower-alpha 3]} 34°40′S 58°24′W / 34.667°S 58.400°W / -34.667; -58.400
Largest city	Buenos Aires Coat of arms of the City of Buenos Aires
Official languages	Spanish^[1]
Recognised regional languages	Guarani (co-official in Corrientes) Qom, Mocoví and Wichí (co-official in Chaco)
Spoken languages	Languages of Argentina
Demonym	Argentine
Member of	UN, OAS, Mercosur, CIN, IAEA, WTO, CAN,^{[lower-alpha 4]} CAF,^{[lower-alpha 4]} IMF, G-15, G-20, G24, G-77, ALADI, IDB, IFC, UNCTAD, UNIDO, OLADE, Interpol, WHO, UNESCO, OEI, ABINIA, WIPO, UNWTO, ICAO, IMO, ITU, UPU, WMO, CELAC, Pacific Alliance, LG, ILO, ATS, G-20-WTO, CTBTO, UNDP, ICC,^{[lower-alpha 4]} PROSUR.
Government	Presidential federal republic

• President	Javier Milei
• Vice President	Victoria Villarruel
• Chief of the Cabinet of Ministers	Guillermo Francos
• President of the Supreme Court	Horacio Rosatti

Independence from Spain^[2]

• May Revolution	May 25, 1810
• Declared	July 9, 1816^{[lower-alpha 5]}
• Constitution	May 1, 1853^{[lower-alpha 6]}
• Recognized	July 9, 1859
• Current constitution^{[lower-alpha 7]}	August 24, 1994

Area
• Total	2,780,400 km² (1,073,500 sq mi)^{[lower-alpha 8]}^[3] (8th)
• Water (%)	1.1
Population
• 2022 census	46,044,703 (31st)
GDP (PPP)	2024 estimate
• Total	USD 1,244,646 million^[4] (31st)
• Per capita	USD 26,389^[4] ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita\|69th]])
GDP (nominal)	2024 estimate
• Total	USD 604,260 million (decrease)^[4] (24th)
• Per capita	USD 12,811 (decrease)^[4] ([[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita\|70th]])
Gini (2022)	40.7^[5] medium inequality (medium)
HDI (2022)	0.849^[6] very high (48th · very high)
Currency	Peso ($)^{[lower-alpha 9]} ([[ISO 4217\|ARS]])
Time zone	UTC−3 (UTC−3)
Calling code	+54
ISO 3166 code	032/ARG/AR
Internet TLD	.ar
Land borders: 11,968 km^[3] · Coastline: 4,989 km^[3] · Aircraft registration prefix: LQ, LV · Vehicle registration code: RA · Radio call sign prefix: AYA-AZZ, LOA-LWZ, L2A-L9Z^[7]

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