Ferdinand III of Castile

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For other people with the same name, see Ferdinand of Castile and Ferdinand III.
Ferdinand III of Castile
King of Castile and León
Ferdinand III in a miniature from the Tumbo A of the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral
King of Castile
ReignJuly 1, 1217 – May 30, 1252
PredecessorBerenguela
SuccessorAlfonso X
King of León
ReignSeptember 24, 1230 – May 30, 1252
PredecessorAlfonso IX
SuccessorAlfonso X
Born1199 or June 24, 1201[1]
Peleas de Arriba
DiedMay 30, 1252
Seville
Burial
Royal Chapel of Seville Cathedral
SpouseBeatrice of Swabia
Joan of Ponthieu
IssueSee Marriages and issue
HouseHouse of Burgundy
FatherAlfonso IX of León
MotherBerenguela of Castile
Ferdinand III of Castile
Venerated inCatholic Church and Anglican
Canonized1671 by Clement X
FeastMay 30
AttributesHis sword Lobera
PatronageHe is patron of several localities such as: Seville, Aranjuez, San Fernando de Henares, Maspalomas, Villanueva del Río y Minas, San Fernando de Apure, San Fernando de Occidente in the Colombian department of Bolívar, San Fernando, a locality in the Colombian department of Magdalena, Pivijay and the Albacete hamlet of Ventas de Alcolea. He is also patron of the Arm of Engineers (of the General Corps of the Arms, both in the signals and sapper specialties) and of the Construction and Telecommunications and Electronics specialties (of the Corps of Polytechnic Engineers) of the Spanish Army. In addition, he is co-patron of the Diocese of San Cristóbal de La Laguna[2] and patron of the university of that city.[3]

Ferdinand III of León and Castile, called "the Saint" (Peleas de Arriba, 1199 or June 24, 1201[1] – Seville, May 30, 1252), was King of Castile between 1217 and 1252 and of León[lower-alpha 1] between 1230 and 1252.

The son of Berenguela, Queen of Castile, and of Alfonso IX, King of León, he dynastically unified the Leonese and Castilian kingdoms, which had remained divided since 1157, when Alfonso VII the Emperor, upon his death, divided them between his sons, the Infantes Sancho and Ferdinand.

During his reign, within the framework of the Reconquista, the kingdoms of Jaén, Córdoba, Seville and what remained of that of Badajoz, whose annexation Alfonso IX had begun, were conquered, which reduced the Iberian territory in the hands of the Muslim kingdoms. At the end of Ferdinand III's reign, these held in Andalusia only the kingdom of Niebla, Tejada and the kingdom of Granada, the latter as a Castilian fief. The Infante Alfonso, the future Alfonso X, was sent by Ferdinand to conquer the kingdom of Murcia; the Muslims capitulated and the region remained as a Castilian lordship, after which Alfonso conquered the strongholds of Mula and Cartagena. When Ferdinand acceded to the throne, in 1217, his kingdom barely exceeded one hundred fifty thousand square kilometers; in 1230, upon inheriting León, he obtained another hundred thousand and, by means of uninterrupted conquests, he managed to acquire one hundred twenty thousand more.[4]

He was canonized in 1671, when Clement X was pope and Charles II was reigning in Spain.

Family origins

Main article: List of ancestors of Ferdinand III of Castile

He was the son of Alfonso IX of León and of his second wife,[5] Queen Berenguela of Castile; his paternal grandparents were Ferdinand II of León and Queen Urraca of Portugal, and his maternal grandparents Alfonso VIII of Castile and Eleanor Plantagenet. He was born in 1199 or 1201, in an unknown place.[5] His parents' marriage was annulled a few years later, in 1203, on account of the consanguinity of the spouses.[5]

Five children were born of this marriage: Eleanor, who died early; Constance, who was a nun at the monastery of Las Huelgas in Burgos; Berenguela, who married John of Brienne, Emperor of Constantinople; Ferdinand (III); and Alfonso of Molina, father of Queen María de Molina, wife of Sancho IV. And on his father's side he had two sisters: the Infantas Sancha and Dulce.

Childhood

In Peleas de Arriba, a place between Zamora and Salamanca, there was a hostel founded by a religious from Zamora named Martín Cid, to attend to travelers and pilgrims who traveled the Vía de la Plata. In that setting Ferdinand was born, while his parents were camping on the hillside during a journey from Salamanca to Zamora. Later, Ferdinand III would found there the Monastery of Nuestra Señora de Valparaíso. The Cronicón Cerratense gave Ferdinand the name Rex Fernandus Montesinus.[1]

Pope Innocent III declared the marriage of his parents, Alfonso IX of León and Berenguela of Castile, null in 1203, alleging the kinship of the spouses, since he was Berenguela's uncle by blood.[5] The separation of the marriage was approved in 1203 and the divorce in 1204.[6] Having exhausted all appeals against the pope, Berenguela returned to the court of her father (Alfonso VIII of Castile) with all her children except Ferdinand, who remained at the Leonese court with his father, the King of León.

After the early death of the King of Castile Alfonso VIII in 1214, his son Henry acceded to the throne as a child and Berenguela held the regency.[7][8]

However, Álvaro Núñez de Lara usurped the royal power and seized several castles. Berenguela had to seek the support of Gonzalo Rodríguez Girón, lord of Frechilla and the Queen's steward, and took refuge in his castle of Autillo de Campos,[9] Palencia. However, this stronghold was besieged by Lara, and Berenguela asked her son for help; he appeared with one thousand five hundred men and put Lara to flight.[10] The short reign of Henry (1214–1217) was characterized by the struggle between two factions of the nobility: the one headed by Berenguela, which also grouped important families such as the Girón, Téllez, Haro and Cameros, and the one led by the Laras, who were backed by the cities, most of the nobles and the bishops.[11] Henry's death in 1217 sharpened the conflict, which devastated part of the kingdom.[11]

Berenguela had a castle, from the 13th century, in the town of Piedrahíta, Province of Ávila. Today, on this site stands the parish church of Santa María la Mayor, which preserves remains of the fortress. According to local tradition, Ferdinand III was born in this castle.[12]

King of Castile

In 1217, after the sudden death of Henry I of Castile, the rights to the crown passed to Berenguela, who,[5] fearing possible claims by her former husband, the King of León, concealed it from him and asked that Ferdinand be brought to her to protect herself from Lara. The Leonese king, persuaded by his elder daughters Dulce and Sancha, did not want to let him go. However, Ferdinand managed to escape and joined his mother at the castle of Autillo.[9] She, by means of a solemn act, proclaimed him King of Castile around June 10[13] or 14[14], 1217, in Autillo de Campos. The official coronation took place in Valladolid around July 2 or 3.[lower-alpha 2][5]

Álvar Núñez de Lara, alférez mayor of Castile, laid siege to Valladolid with the approval of Alfonso IX of León. The Leonese king took the side of the Laras after the death of Henry I.[16] Ferdinand and his mother had to withdraw to Burgos. This was followed by a series of Leonese conquests along the Sequillo River and the plundering of areas near Valladolid by Alfonso IX.[17] Ferdinand did not fight against his father, and sent him messages that under his reign Castile would be a friendly kingdom; and, although at first Alfonso paid no heed, he ended up withdrawing to León, weary of these actions. On August 26, 1218, the Pact of Toro was signed, which put an end to the hostilities between Castile and León.[18] Nonetheless, Alfonso was paid ten thousand maravedís that were owed to him by the former King Henry from an exchange of the castle of Santibáñez de la Mota.[19][20] In return, the Leonese king renounced his claims to the territories bordering Castile.[21] Pope Honorius III mediated between the two kingdoms so that they would end the conflict and prepare to take part in a new crusade, preached at the Fourth Council of the Lateran.[20]

In the early days of the reign, some of the former supporters of the House of Lara went over to the ranks of the new king, but others remained hostile to Berenguela and her son.[22] Among these were in particular numerous bishops and the cities of the south of the kingdom.[22] Among the bishops, the main support for the new king came from those of Burgos and Palencia, who obtained generous grants from the sovereign.[23] Among the nobility close to Ferdinand, those who had obtained abundant lands and royal concessions in the time of Alfonso VIII stood out.[18] The clashes over the succession lasted two years and included both the raids of the Leonese through the Tierra de Campos and the Castilian Extremadura and the clashes with the Laras, from whom in the summer of 1217 Ferdinand seized lands between Burgos and Logroño and several royal holdings further south in the kingdom.[18] Near the castle of Ferreruela, between Palenzuela and Palencia, Alfonso Tello captured the Count of Lara, who was taken to Burgos and forced to hand over all the castles he held in tenure and to help the King against his brother Fernando Núñez de Lara in exchange for regaining his freedom.[17] Fernando Núñez de Lara submitted shortly afterward, but the Laras rebelled again against Ferdinand in 1218, with the help of Alfonso IX, who invaded Castile south of Toro.[24] The final defeat of the House of Lara came in 1218, after the death of Álvar Núñez in Toro.[18]

In mid-1219 a Castilian delegation headed by Maurice, Bishop of Burgos, arrived at the court of Frederick II of Germany and, probably in Hagenau, in Alsace, the marriage contract between his fourth daughter, Beatrice of Swabia, and Ferdinand III took place.[20] Ferdinand gave Beatrice as dowry the towns, castles and his royal rights over Carrión de los Condes, Logroño, Belorado, Peñafiel, Castrogeriz, Pancorbo, Fuentepudia, Montealegre, Palenzuela, Astudillo, Villafranca Montes de Oca and Roa.[25][26] Beatrice, with the delegation of notable men of Castile, set out from Alsace to Burgos, passing through the Court of Paris, because she wished to greet the wife of the dauphin, the future Louis VIII of France, and mother of the future Louis IX of France, Blanche, sister of her future mother-in-law, Berenguela. On November 27 Ferdinand was knighted at the monastery of Santa María la Real de Las Huelgas in Burgos, where he was given his sword. On November 30, in the same city, the wedding was celebrated in the cathedral.[25] The Queen was much loved by the people and aroused admiration. The chronicler Rodrigo Ximénez de Rada, not at all given to epithets, describes her as optima, pulchra, sapiens et pudica ("most good, beautiful, wise and modest"). And she was a great lover of classical and vernacular culture, something she had assimilated while being educated at the Court of the Emperor Frederick II. She would transmit a similar love of culture to her husband and her children. Her son Alfonso X the Wise would dedicate a eulogy to her in one of his Cantigas, and a 13th-century sculpture representing her is preserved in Burgos Cathedral.

First campaigns in Andalusia

The pacification of Castile at the end of the 1210s and the beginning of the following decade, owing to the treaty with León and the defeat of the nobles opposed to Ferdinand, allowed him to undertake new campaigns in the south of the peninsula.[27] The Andalusi territories were in crisis and the caliph Al-Mustansir had signed truces with the Castilians in 1214 and 1221.[28] The decision to undertake new conquests, shared by the Castilian nobility, was taken by Ferdinand in 1224.[28]

As a consequence of internal problems, the Almohad empire was breaking up.[29] During the reign of the caliph Al-Mutansir the cities gained more power in the caliphate. The death of Al-Muntansir in 1224 provoked a struggle for power that ended with the appointment of Al-Mamun as caliph in 1227.[30][29] Yahya al-Mutasim did not recognize this ruler and created his own caliphate in North Africa, causing Al-Mamun to move to the Maghreb to fight that rebellion. The cities of Al-Andalus began to take shape as kingdoms ruled by the qadis, thus forming the third taifa kingdoms. The governors Alhamar of Seville, Zayyan of Valencia and Mahfuz of Niebla created their own taifas. Al-Bayyasi, who had been an Almohad governor of Seville,[31] became emir of Baeza and reigned over the cities of the Upper Guadalquivir.[32]

In 1224 Ferdinand set out from Toledo with a contingent of great men of Castile and the master of the Order of Santiago, who were later joined by the Order of Calatrava with its master at its head; they headed for the Sierra Morena and gathered at the castle of Baños, where Al-Bayyasi paid them parias. Afterward, Ferdinand marched against the city of Quesada and other castles, which were quickly taken in September.[33] He then continued his conquests through the kingdom of Jaén, the center of the Castilian campaigns between 1224 and 1230.[33] Given the distance of Quesada from the Castilian frontier, Ferdinand ended up evacuating the stronghold.[33]

Ferdinand struck up such a friendship with Al-Bayyasi that the latter handed over his firstborn son to him, and Ferdinand raised him with his family. The young man accompanied the Castilian king in his conquests through Andalusia and earned honors for it. It is not known with certainty that Al-Bayyasi converted to Christianity, but everything seems to indicate that he did.[33] The King of Valencia, Zayd Abu Zayd, did not know what position to take regarding this attitude of the Christians and had not recognized the authority of the caliph Al-Adil. His cousin, Al-Bayyasi, urged him to become Ferdinand's vassal, so he went to Cuenca, where the Castilian court was at the time, and swore perpetual vassalage to the King in Moya in March 1225.[34][33]

In the summer of 1225 Ferdinand organized a campaign in the province of Jaén, for which he requested a crusade bull from Pope Honorius III.[35] At the end of that year, Honorius III granted the crusade bull to those who fought in the Holy Land and in the lands of Castile. The bull was disseminated by the Archbishop of Toledo and by the Bishop of Burgos.[36]

Subsequently, Ferdinand led an offensive against the fortress of Priego (Córdoba), which he took, and continued on to the city of Loja, a city he also conquered.[37] The siege of Jaén, by contrast, proved fruitless.[37] Afterward his forces took the city of Alhama, which had been abandoned by its inhabitants out of fear of the Christians. And in this way they reached the very Vega de Granada, where, fearing they would share the same fate as the previous strongholds, the inhabitants parleyed with Ferdinand and offered the liberation of 1,300 Christian slaves and the rescission of the contract that obliged Álvar Pérez de Castro to serve the King of Granada, who then joined the Christian expedition, which made the decision to return to Toledo.[38]

After this campaign, on the basis of the agreements they had reached, Al-Bayyasi, emir of Baeza, gave Ferdinand the castles of Martos and Andújar.[37][35]

In the autumn of 1225 Ferdinand met again with Al-Bayyasi in Andújar, demanding the surrender of the castles of Borjalimal, Salvatierra and Capilla to fulfill the pact of Las Navas. Al-Bayyasi offered him the alcázar of Baeza, which was occupied by the Order of Calatrava.[39] Salvatierra and Borjalimal surrendered soon, while Capilla resisted but was finally taken, after a siege, in September 1226.[40][41] While the siege of Capilla was under way, news arrived of the death of Al-Bayyasi after a revolt of the people of Córdoba, who accused him of helping the Castilians in the conquest of Capilla.[41] After his death and as a consequence of the pact of vassalage, Ferdinand III took charge of his possessions and, although Baeza asked Jaén for help, it was finally conquered on December 1.[41] Ferdinand III gave the tenure of the city to Lope Díaz de Haro.[42][41]

In 1226 the castle of Montiel was conquered, and it was granted to the Order of Santiago in 1227.[43]

Ibn Hud created his own kingdom in 1228. By 1231 he controlled all of Al-Andalus with the exceptions of the taifas of Niebla and Valencia.[44]

Between 1228 and 1230, Ferdinand undertook various campaigns both to consolidate the conquests of the previous years and to prepare the taking of Jaén, for which he laid waste to its lands.[45] However, the new siege of the city between June and September 1230 failed once again.[46] The death of Alfonso IX of León that same month of September and Ferdinand's assumption of his crown put an end to this period of campaigns in Al-Andalus, since the Castilian monarch had to concentrate on dealing with the problems of the unification of the two kingdoms.[46]

King of Castile and of León

Reunification of Castile and León

On the death of his father, Alfonso IX, in 1230, Ferdinand claimed the throne of León, of which the pope had confirmed him as heir in 1218, despite Alfonso's probable intention of bequeathing it to Sancha and Dulce, daughters of his marriage with Teresa of Portugal.[47] The disputes between Ferdinand and Alfonso—an ally of the Laras, who were at odds with the Castilian king—had complicated the possibility of the former inheriting the Leonese throne on the death of the latter.[48] León was divided between the supporters of the Infantas and those who preferred Ferdinand.[48]

While the Infantas and their mother Teresa of Portugal shut themselves up in Zamora, protected by their father's alférez, Rodrigo Fernández Feo, Ferdinand, accompanied by his mother Berenguela and the Bishop of Toledo, entered the kingdom and was received as king in Toro.[49] The city of León was divided between the supporters of Ferdinand and those of his sisters, but in the end the Castilian king entered the city and received the homage of most of the nobility, the clergy and the representatives of the cities of the kingdom.[50]

After a meeting in Valencia de Alcántara (Cáceres)[51] or in Valencia de Don Juan[50] (thirty kilometers from Benavente) between the two queens consort, Teresa of Portugal and Berenguela of Castile, they went to Benavente, where Ferdinand and the Archbishops of Santiago and Toledo were, and where on December 11, 1230, the Concord of Benavente or Treaty of the Tercerías was signed,[51][47] in which the Infantas renounced their possible rights to the throne and the transfer of the crown of León to Ferdinand, in exchange for compensation of thirty thousand maravedís a year to Dulce and Sancha and the cession of some fortresses that would be reincorporated into the Crown when they died.[52] In this way León and Castile were dynastically united—they continued to keep separate Cortes, laws and institutions—in the person of Ferdinand. There were hardly any changes in the offices of the kingdom, and the King kept in their posts even some adversaries who had stood out in the succession conflict.[53] In 1231 the document was confirmed by Pope Gregory IX.[47] Also that year the Agreement of Sabugal was signed between Ferdinand III and King Sancho II of Portugal to delimit the borders and seek an alliance against Islam. The new Leonese king handed over to the Portuguese king the castle of San Esteban de Chaves and committed himself before him to defend Queen Teresa if necessary.[54] The pact between Ferdinand and his sisters put an end to the Leonese succession conflict, but it did not prevent part of the Leonese nobility and Church from opposing the new Castilian monarch; the core of the rejection of Ferdinand was probably Galicia.[53] Between 1230 and 1233, the sovereign was absorbed in the pacification and organization of his new kingdom.[53] His domains were divided into three administrative units, each managed by a merino mayor: Castile, León and Galicia.[55]

The unification of the kingdoms put an end to the continual border clashes between the two kingdoms that had occurred intermittently since the 11th century.[56] The importance of the nobility in the area and the vagueness of the border had favored fighting in this zone.[57]

New campaigns in Al-Andalus

During the years of managing the Castilian-Leonese union, the King limited himself to overseeing the incursions into Andalusi lands, which were carried out mainly by the military orders, some nobles and the frontier bishoprics, especially that of Toledo.[54] In 1231 the Archbishop of Toledo, Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada, took the stronghold of Cazorla in Jaén, after having seized in April Quesada, Toya and all their district, which Ferdinand had entrusted to him if he managed to conquer them.[54]

Once again he organized an expedition against Al-Andalus, which included the captain Álvar Pérez de Castro and many nobles and knights such as the Pérez de Vargas brothers, Rodrigo González Girón, Tello Alfonso de Meneses, Pero Miguel, Pero de Guzmán (father of Guzmán el Bueno) and many others, and, naturally, a large group of knights of Calatrava and Santiago. They skirted the city of Córdoba, devastating the countryside, and assaulted the castle of Palma del Río. The leader Ibn Hud went with his troops to confront this expedition in an olive grove near Jerez, where a battle took place.[58] In the end, Ibn Hud beat a retreat, leaving Jerez to its fate, and the Christians took a formidable booty.[59]

In 1233 a host organized by the Bishop of Plasencia, with the participation of the military orders, conquered the city of Trujillo.[60][58] On September 29, 1234, Ferdinand conquered the city of Úbeda.[61] For these conquests, Ferdinand benefited from the internal confrontations among the Andalusi lords.[58] In 1234 the military orders again seized Medellín, Alange and Santa Cruz, and around 1235 Magacela[lower-alpha 3] and Hornachos.[62][63] The King, however, did not take part in the incursions of that year, both because of the death of his wife and because of the noble uprisings he had to face in the north of Castile.[64]

In 1235 the castle of Torres de Albánchez was conquered. The castle of Chiclana de Segura, according to some historians, may have been conquered between the end of 1226 and the beginning of 1227, and, according to others, in 1235.[65] In any case, it was in 1235 that Ferdinand III granted Chiclana de Segura to the Bishop of Osma. He, in turn, granted it in 1239 to the Order of Santiago, forming part of the commandery of Montizón and Chiclana.[66]

The following campaigns, in which the King again took part in person, delegating the government of the kingdom to his mother Berenguela and, after her death in 1246, to the Infante Alfonso of Molina, marked the second part of the reign.[67] In twelve years, Ferdinand took possession of a large part of the Andalusi territory and of many of its great cities, such as Córdoba and Seville.[67]

Reconquest of Córdoba

Main article: Conquest of Córdoba

The Almohad governor of Córdoba signed a one-year truce with Ferdinand III in 1235. For this, the emir had to pay 430,000 maravedís. However, this truce did not prevent the Castilians from attacking strongholds that no longer depended on the emir, so Ferdinand took the castles of Iznatoraf and San Esteban. That year Beatrice of Swabia died and Ferdinand moved to the north.[58] The emir decided not to pay what had been agreed, and Christians from the frontier councils led by Domingo Muñoz of Segovia took the outskirts of Córdoba and dug in. In addition, some Moorish deserters informed the Christians that the city was unguarded and that it was very easy to reach the Axerquía, which a small group of soldiers did.[68] This happened in January 1236, and the King, upon being informed, gathered forces from León, Salamanca, Zamora and Toro and from the military orders and marched toward Córdoba. Accompanied by the Infante Alfonso, by Castilian and Leonese nobles, by troops of the councils and by forces of the Bishops of Cuenca and Baeza, Ferdinand reached the city in February.[68] James I of Aragon was menacing Valencia, and Ibn Hud preferred to withdraw to Almería and go protect that stronghold with his ships, giving Córdoba up for lost. Córdoba, abandoned by its emir and disheartened by the siege, capitulated; Ferdinand's solemn entry into the city took place on June 29, 1236.[68] The King left Alfonso Téllez de Meneses as governor of the city and Álvar Pérez de Castro as military governor.[69] The Castilian-Leonese king then signed a six-year truce with Ibn Hud, by which the latter committed himself to pay him tribute.[68] Ferdinand also restored the bishopric of Córdoba, which remained as a suffragan of that of Toledo, like others (Baeza, Coria, Cuenca and Plasencia), until the metropolis of the ecclesiastical province (Seville) was restored.[68] The conquest of Córdoba and the restoration of the bishopric impelled Pope Gregory IX to grant Ferdinand important prerogatives, both canonical (papal protection of the royal family and indulgences to those who took part in Ferdinand's campaigns) and economic and political.[70]

His mother recommended to her son Ferdinand that he marry a second time, and he accepted the suggestion. His mother, to avoid kinship among the nobles, sought the help of her sister Blanche, who recommended Joan of Ponthieu or of Dammartin. Joan came from France with a retinue that departed after the marriage was celebrated in Toledo. The wedding was celebrated in Burgos Cathedral in November 1237 and was officiated by the same cleric as his first wedding, the bishop of the diocese, Maurice.[71] In 1238 and 1239 he remained in the Burgos area, from where he had to send provisions to the most recently conquered areas, which were in difficulties.[72]

The death of Ibn Hud in 1238 and the continual decline of Almohad power smoothed the way for Ferdinand's new conquests in the Andalusi lands.[72] A large part of the Córdoba countryside capitulated to the Castilian-Leonese, and in the early 1240s the Christians subjected the kingdom of Murcia.[72] In 1241 he took Albacete.[72]

Between 1240 and 1243 his conquests spread out in a fan with hardly any resistance: Chillón, Gahete, Pedroche, Santa Eufemia, Obejo, Setefilla, Hornachuelos, Almodóvar, Luque, Lucena, Santaella, Montoro, Aguilar, Baena, Écija, Marchena, Morón, Osuna and Estepa.

Panel showing Axataf handing the keys of Seville to Ferdinand III in front of one of the city gates, in a work from around 1750. The author took the liberty of depicting the cathedral as the Christians built it. The painting also shows the Virgin of the Kings in the heavens at the moment of the handover.

Ferdinand III faced two fronts: Andalusia and Murcia. He decided to reserve the first for himself and sent his firstborn son to the second. Alfonso traveled to Toledo in 1243, where an embassy arrived from the King of Murcia, Muriel, bringing a list of conditions for becoming a lordship of Don Ferdinand. The reason was that James I of Aragon had already conquered Valencia and Játiva and now, allied with Alhamar, King of Jaén and Granada, they intended to take Murcia. Alfonso accepted the conditions and signed the Capitulations of Alcaraz, and afterward traveled through the region and settled temporarily in the alcázar of Murcia. Later Alfonso signed with James I of Aragon the Treaty of Almizra to fix the limit of the Aragonese expansion southward.[73] This agreement carried as a pledge the arrangement of a marriage between Alfonso of Castile and Violante, daughter of James I. In 1244 Rodrigo González Girón and the master of Santiago, Pelayo Pérez Correa, joined Alfonso and took the city of Mula, Lorca—which capitulated after an arduous resistance—and Cartagena, which they were able to take thanks to a naval fleet that came from the Cantabrian Sea, and which was a prelude to the plans Ferdinand had for Seville. That same year of 1244, Ferdinand undertook his last offensive in Al-Andalus.[73]

The city of Jaén had already been under siege from July 5 to 20, 1225, when it was defended by Álvar Pérez de Castro, before his contract to serve the King of Granada was rescinded. In 1228 Ferdinand returned to those lands and took the town and castle of Castro and went up the Río de la Plata by the Veleta hill and Otiñar, whose settlement was razed, just as had been done with Grañena, on the Pitas hill.[74] In 1230 he again besieged Jaén and its surroundings were plundered.[74] In 1245, while Ferdinand was in Martos, Pelayo Correa encouraged him to take Jaén. Ferdinand set out for Jaén in the company of his younger brother, Alfonso of Molina, aided mainly by the Orders of Calatrava and Santiago. Jaén belonged to the taifa kingdom of Arjona, whose king was Áhmed ben Yúsuf ben Násar, known as Aben Alhamar, who eventually moved his kingdom to Granada. The siege, the third that Ferdinand undertook to take the stronghold, lasted seven months, from August 1245 to February 1246.[73] Finally, Alahmar surrendered Jaén and recognized King Ferdinand's dominion over his lands, the kingdom of Granada, in vassalage, paying half of his revenues, calculated at one hundred fifty thousand maravedís a year.[73] The survival of the kingdom of Granada was thus ensured; it would last for two and a half more centuries.[75] Alhamar had tried in vain to obtain the aid of the Marinids and, failing to obtain it, agreed to cede the stronghold, whose population had to evacuate it.[73] Ferdinand made his solemn entry into the city in March 1246.[73] On his initiative, the bishopric of Baeza was moved to Jaén in 1248.[73] The conquest of Jaén also allowed the King to sign a league with Seville, whose lords feared the Hafsid sultan Abu Zakariya Yahya.[76] The subsequent breakup of the alliance precipitated the campaign that ended with its conquest by the Castilian-Leonese sovereign.[76]

Between March and April 1245 he went to visit his mother, Berenguela, and they met at Pozo de Don Gil, the place where Alfonso X founded Villa Real, which is today Ciudad Real. His mother told him that she had been carrying out tasks in Castile and in León but that she was tired and needed to retire to a monastery. In 1246, after conquering the alcázar of Alcalá de Guadaira, near Seville, he received news of his mother's death. She was buried in the monastery of Las Huelgas, in Burgos, in a simple tomb, but her granddaughter, who was a nun in that monastery, decided in 1251 to move her to a mausoleum in the choir, next to the remains of her parents, Alfonso VIII and Eleanor.[77]

In 1247 Pope Innocent IV granted a crusade bull for the Reconquest of Seville, according to which Ferdinand could take the tercias de fábrica to pay the expenses of those who traveled to take part in it for Christian reasons.[36][78]

Reconquest of Seville

Main article: Reconquest of Seville

King Ferdinand entrusted Ramón de Bonifaz with assembling a fleet to take the port city of Seville; the fleet was made ready between 1246 and 1248.[79] Bonifaz went to Cantabria, where he obtained thirteen large ships in addition to some galleys and smaller vessels. The Christian fleet prepared to attack the Muslim fleet, which was numerically superior, on the Guadalquivir River, and Ferdinand III sent land reinforcements. Finally, Bonifaz defeated the Muslim fleet, thus managing to deprive Seville of maritime reinforcements that might be sent from North Africa. In addition, the strongholds near the city gradually fell into the hands of the Castilian-Leonese.[79] On August 20, 1247, he began to besiege the city,[79] but they discovered that the emir of Niebla, Amen Amanfon, was sending reinforcements and provisions from the fortress of San Juan de Aznalfarache using the pontoon bridge. Also at the siege was Ferdinand III's son, Alfonso X, who sent missives to the city threatening to put its inhabitants to the sword if a single tile of the mosque or a single brick of its minaret were knocked down,[80] the future Giralda. One of the knights who most distinguished himself in that battle was Garci Pérez de Vargas.[81] The Infante Alfonso, accompanied by the Infante of Portugal Pedro of Urgel and by some Catalan and Aragonese troops, had joined the siege at the end of 1247.[79]

Ferdinand III sent the master Pelayo Pérez Correa to besiege the castle of San Juan, and he managed to take the stronghold. However, from the Aljarafe district the city continued to receive support across the pontoon bridge,[82] so King Ferdinand made the decision to cut it. Ramón de Bonifaz, together with Rui Pérez, captained the ships loaded with stones to ram the bridge.[82] According to some authors, the port was protected by a chain running from the Torre del Oro to the opposite bank, and the ships broke that chain before destroying the bridge.[82] After this, the walled city was isolated from the Aljarafe and from the castle of Triana.[82]

The city surrendered when it did not receive the aid it had requested from the Hafsids of the Maghreb.[79] The taking of the city by the Castilian troops took place on November 23, 1248.[79] The qaid Axataf handed the keys of the city to Ferdinand III.[83]

As had already happened in other places, Ferdinand restored the archbishopric of Seville, which he endowed with munificence.[84] The court settled in Seville until the King's death in 1252.[85] His long campaign of conquest brought, however, new financial difficulties and requests for economic concessions to the papacy, which granted them.[86]

The last campaigns were devoted to subjugating the district of Seville and various strongholds.[85] In 1249 the monarch conquered Lebrija and in 1250 the castle of Fontanar and its village, today Bornos, and Arcos de la Frontera.[85] In 1251 his son Philip, aged 21, was chosen as archbishop of the newly restored see of Seville; however, he was never consecrated and married Princess Christina of Norway. The Infante Sancho, at 18 years of age, was appointed Archbishop of Toledo. The emir of Niebla and the Algarve, Ibn Mahfuz, ceded the rights of sovereignty over the Algarve to the Castilian king in exchange for protecting him from the King of Portugal, who was conquering that territory. The Portuguese monarch recognized this in truces he signed with the Castilian monarch for 40 years.[citation needed]

The Crónica general says that, after the Reconquest of Seville in 1248, Jerez de la Frontera, Medina Sidonia,[85] Alcalá de los Gazules, Vejer de la Frontera, El Puerto de Santa María, Cádiz, Sanlúcar de Alpechín,[lower-alpha 4] Rota and Trebujena passed under Castilian dominion. Most probably these places were not conquered during Ferdinand's reign and simply remained as vassals, paying the corresponding parias.[87][88]

The Crónica general states that, shortly after the Reconquest of Seville in 1248, Ferdinand was planning the conquest of North Africa.[89] The project was to carry out a crusade that would conquer from Oran to the Atlantic in order thus to control both sides of the strait. This was possible, since in the Maghreb the Almohads were in an internal crisis and the Marinids were trying to establish themselves in the territory, in conflict with the Almohad caliphs and with the Muslim kings of Tunis and Tlemcen.[90] Alfonso X ordered the construction of the Atarazanas of Seville in 1252 for the manufacture of ships.[90] In 1257 he carried out a military expedition to Taount, near Oran, and in 1260 another to Salé.[89]

Cultural and political work

Equestrian statue of the monarch on the monument located in the Plaza Nueva of Seville, made in the 1920s. The statue of Ferdinand III is the work of Joaquín Bilbao Rodríguez.

He sought to unify and centralize the administration of the Castilian and Leonese kingdoms, promoted the translation of the Fuero Juzgo and established Castilian as the official language of his kingdoms and of documents, in place of Latin. A lover of poetry, a cantiga in Galician that he composed in praise of the Virgin is preserved, which also indicates his great Marian devotion. He commissioned the Libro del septenario, also known simply as the Setenario, a kind of draft of the Siete Partidas of his son Alfonso X; it was a text oriented to education and of a philosophical nature that speaks of the seven branches of the liberal arts and contains some concepts of common law. Alfonso X would later bring this project of his father to a satisfactory conclusion, giving it a more juridical sense. He also ordered the composition, around 1237, of the Libro de la nobleza y lealtad, compuesto por doce sabios, also known as the Libro de los doce sabios, a mirror for princes that proposes a consultative group of twelve learned persons to help one be a good ruler. This treatise has an epilogue by his son, Alfonso X the Wise.[91][92] It is a work of political law and norms on the duties of the ruler for good government and the virtues he must possess to fulfill those obligations. The book is inspired by scholasticism and by the Isidorian and Thomist doctrines and can be considered an antecedent of the so-called Council of Castile.

In the cultural and religious sphere, he ordered the building of the cathedrals of Burgos and León. In his time, Archbishop Rodrigo began the works of the Toledo Cathedral. The King's chancellor, Juan, founded the Valladolid Cathedral and later, as Bishop of Osuna, built that cathedral. Nuño, Bishop of Astorga, built the tower and the cloister of his cathedral. Lorenzo, Bishop of Orense, raised the tower that his church lacked. The King ordered the building of innumerable churches, convents and hospitals, and both he and his mother made important donations.[93]

Despite his efforts to revitalize the Studium Generale of Palencia, which had fallen into irremediable decline, and which had been founded in 1212 by Alfonso VIII of Castile and moved to Salamanca in 1218 by Alfonso IX of León, since it did not seem to function at the university level desired because of the scarce resources at its disposal, he abolished it in 1240, and from that moment Ferdinand devoted all his attention and resources to the University of Salamanca so that it would become one of the best in Europe.[93]

Ferdinand III, concerned with his conquests in Andalusia, sought social calm in Galicia, and to that end he leaned in favor of the ecclesiastical lords in the dispute they had with the councils of Compostela in 1238, of Tui in 1249 and of Lugo in 1252, and he created the figure of the representative of royal power, since he, from so far away, could not exercise power through adelantados.[94] He distributed the newly conquered lands among the military orders, the Church and the nobles, which gave rise to the formation of large latifundia.[95]

Court

He took pains to ensure that importance was given at his court to music and to fine literary speech. He organized tournaments and festivities, which were enlivened by troubadours and minstrels. Among the troubadours close to him was Da Ponte, who composed stanzas lamenting the death of his first wife, Beatrice. The troubadours Domingo Abad and Nicolás de Romances, after the Reconquest of Seville, were rewarded with the inheritance of a fief each.[96] Galician poems and songs, learned by him during his youth in Galicia, were his favorites.[96] He was also a patron of artists. His son, King Alfonso the Wise, was a great man of letters and declared that he owed his learning in large part to his father's interest in ensuring that his instruction was the best possible.

Death of the King

The Last Moments of Ferdinand III the Saint, by Virgilio Mattoni. 1887. Royal Alcázar of Seville.

His death is attributed to a dropsy he contracted in the winter of 1251.[97] His death took place on May 30, 1252.[98]

On May 30, 1252, he was in the Alcázar. With him were four of the children he had with Beatrice of Swabia—Alfonso, Frederick, Philip and Henry—and his wife Joan of Ponthieu with the three children he had with her—Ferdinand, Eleanor and Louis.[99] He was in the company of his family, holding a crucifix.[99]

He asked that Remondo, Bishop of Segovia, his usual confessor, administer the viaticum to him.[97] Ferdinand dressed himself in sackcloth. When the consecration took place, he knelt and put an esparto rope around his neck, thus receiving communion.[100][97]

A candle was brought to him to hold at the moment of his death and, before taking it, he raised his arms to heaven and said:[101]

Lord: You gave me a kingdom that I did not have, and honor and power that I did not deserve; You gave me life, this one not lasting, for as long as was Your will. Lord, I give You thanks and I return to You the kingdom that You gave me with such profit as I was able to achieve, and I offer You my soul.[101]

He asked the clerics to pray the litanies and to sing the Te Deum Laudamus.[102]

The funeral took place on June 1, 1252, and was officiated by Remondo, Bishop of Segovia, in the cathedral. In the city there were royal vassals, bishops, abbots and rich men of the kingdom, who had come to express their grief.[98]

Burial

General view of the Royal Chapel of Seville Cathedral.

The body of King Ferdinand III the Saint was buried in Seville Cathedral, three days after his death.[103] Ferdinand III had stipulated in his will that his body be buried at the foot of the image of the Virgin of the Kings, which is supposed to have been given to the monarch by his cousin, King Saint Louis of France, and had also ordered that his tomb be simple, without a recumbent statue.[104]

Nevertheless, after the King's death, his son Alfonso X ordered the making of his parents' mausoleums, covered in silver, and of the seated effigies representing them, covered with precious metals and precious stones, thus going against his father's wish. In front of the image of the Virgin of the Kings, donated by Ferdinand III the Saint to Seville Cathedral, were placed the effigies of Ferdinand III and of his first wife, Queen Beatrice of Swabia, who appeared clothed, seated in silver-plated chairs and under canopies of gilded silver.

The seated image of Ferdinand III was crowned with a crown of gold and precious stones. The images of Ferdinand III and Beatrice of Swabia each wore crowns of gold and precious stones. The precious stones were confiscated by his descendant, King Peter I of Castile, during the War of the Two Peters, in the 14th century, arguing that they were not sufficiently protected.[105]

The monarch appeared holding in his right hand the sword with its point upward, and the sword was adorned with a ruby and an emerald. On the index finger of his left hand, in which he held the scabbard of the sword, adorned with gems, he wore a gold ring with a ruby of considerable size. This ring would later be placed on the hand of the Virgin of the Kings, who wore, like the Child Jesus she held in her arms, a gold crown with precious stones, which were donated to her by Alfonso X the Wise.[106]

After the death of Alfonso X, his effigy, in the same style as those of his parents, was placed beside them. The sarcophagi containing the remains of the monarchs were placed at the feet of the image of the Virgin of the Kings, and they were adorned with coats of arms showing castles, lions and eagles, the last being the symbol of the House of Hohenstaufen, of which Queen Beatrice of Swabia was a member.

Silver urn containing the mortal remains of Saint Ferdinand. Royal Chapel of Seville Cathedral.

The effigy representing Ferdinand III was placed in the center of the chapel and that of his wife was placed to the left. When Ferdinand III the Saint was canonized in the year 1671, the seated image of the King, from the 13th century, was replaced by another made by the sculptor Pedro Roldán, who according to certain sources made it in a few days, and it was then gilded and estofado by a daughter of the painter Juan de Valdés Leal.[107]

Today, the silver urn containing the remains of Ferdinand III the Saint is placed on a masonry base, set before the steps of the altar where the image of the Virgin of the Kings stands. On the masonry base that supports the urn are placed four epitaphs, composed in Arabic, Latin, Hebrew and Castilian. Tradition holds that the four epitaphs were composed by his son Alfonso X.

The silver urn containing the remains of King Saint Ferdinand was made by the silversmith Juan Laureano de Pina. It was begun in 1690, although financial difficulties meant that it was not completed until the year 1719, and several silversmiths took part in its completion, silver, silver-gilt and bronze having been used in its making. The outer urn covers the inner urn, with glass walls, in which the remains of the monarch rest.

The urn, which is considered the most important work of Sevillian Baroque silverwork, usually remains closed, although it can be opened to show the body of Saint Ferdinand, as is done on May 30, the feast of Saint Ferdinand, when it is exposed for the veneration of the faithful.[108] The decoration of the outer urn, which protects the inner urn, glorifies the virtues of King Saint Ferdinand and the apotheosis of the Spanish monarchy, and it is also adorned with reliefs with floral and plant motifs.

Canonization

Altarpiece of Saint Ferdinand in the Church of the Savior of Seville. At his sides are Saint Louis, King of France and Saint Hermenegild, and above are the carvings of Saint Didacus of Alcalá and Saint John the Baptist. The altarpiece is the work of José Díaz and was made between 1760 and 1767. The image of Saint Ferdinand was carved by Antonio de Quirós in 1699, its polychromy being by the painter Francisco Meneses Osorio. Saint Louis and Saint Hermenegild are works by Blas Moner.

For a canonization, besides a miracle, a reputation for holiness is required. After the death of Ferdinand III and his burial in the cathedral, a spiritual energy arose that attracted the faithful of Seville.[109] Pope Sixtus V would confirm in 1590 that Ferdinand III possessed the halo of holiness and deserved the treatment of saint, on the basis of the "radiance around the head that is given in Rome to the beatified and the diadem of the canonized."[109] The restrictions of Pope Urban VIII made it necessary to demonstrate that this representation really was such and, once this was proven, it was possible to advance the process from 1649 onward.[109]

Francisco López de Caro and Bartolomé Esteban Murillo were charged with compiling all the images of Ferdinand III that existed in Seville.[109] They began with a copper plate preserved in the Royal Chapel of Seville Cathedral, which was in turn a version of another that had been made in Rome years before. In the same chapel they found an image in a tabernacle of Saint Ferdinand kneeling in prayer before an image of the Father. In the trascoro of the cathedral there was an image of the surrender of the emir Axataf before Ferdinand III painted by Francisco Pacheco in 1634.

After compiling other portraits they went to the Alcázar of Seville, where they found an image of the King in the Hall of the Ambassadors. Other places they visited were the Puerta de Jerez, the Franciscan convent of San Diego, the Puerta de la Carne, the church of Santa María la Blanca, the monastery of the Cartuja, the monastery of San Clemente, the Alhóndiga, the altarpiece of San Andrés in the convent of La Paz, the city hall and the adjoining convent of San Francisco.[109] In 3 years, from January 1649, the two of them managed to gather numerous images of King Ferdinand that existed in the city and that confirmed this person's reputation for holiness.[109]

After this, the testimonies for the canonization were reported in the 1650s, in the 17th century. From 1652 the image of Saint Ferdinand was already internationalized. In 1626 some witnesses, such as Juan Villavicencio y Alarcón, attested to the enormous popularity the image had reached in Rome. He was also venerated in the Cathedral of Monaco, at his own altar. Juan de la Fuente Almonte, regidor veinticuatro of Seville, stated that in the Viceroyalty of Peru he was called "Holy King Don Ferdinand".[109]

On February 7, 1671,[109] he was canonized by Pope Clement X.

Patronages

Saint Ferdinand is patron of several localities such as: Seville, Aranjuez, San Fernando de Henares, Maspalomas (Gran Canaria), Villanueva del Río y Minas, San Fernando de Apure, Pivijay and the Albacete hamlet of Ventas de Alcolea. He is also patron of the Arm of Engineers of the Spanish Army.[110][111]

Since the creation in 1819 of the Diocese of San Cristóbal de La Laguna, also called the Diocese of Tenerife (Canary Islands), Saint Ferdinand has been its co-patron and that of the diocesan cathedral by bull of Pope Pius VII.[2] This is due, on the one hand, to the fact that this diocese is dependent on the Archdiocese of Seville,[2] whose capital city has as patrons Saint Ferdinand together with the Virgin of the Kings and, on the other, to the fact that it was King Ferdinand VII who decisively supported the creation of this diocese.[112] Saint Ferdinand is also the patron of the University of La Laguna, since this institution was founded under the name of Universidad Literaria de San Fernando.[3]

During the siege of Seville, Ferdinand had a banner bearing the effigy of the Virgin. The Muslims thought that destroying that banner would be an important blow to the morale of the Christian troops and sent a small contingent to the Christian camp, which ended up damaging the banner with arrows. Ferdinand mentioned this to the cleric Remondo, who recommended that he send it to the camp's tailors to have it repaired, but Ferdinand decided to sew it himself. For this reason, he was named hermano mayor of the Catholic brotherhood of the tailors' guild, or "alfayetes", which was the first to exist in Seville after the Reconquest. This brotherhood had as patrons Saint Matthew and Saint Homobonus, and later added the Virgin of the Kings (patroness of tailors) and Saint Ferdinand himself when he was canonized. That brotherhood still exists, with the name of Brotherhood of the Virgin of the Kings, and holds its worship in the church of San Ildefonso in the city.[113]

He is also patron of the Organización Juvenil Española (OJE), a youth organization devoted to the non-formal education of young Spaniards.

Marriages and issue

Monument to Ferdinand III the Saint in Baeza.

Ferdinand III the Saint married in November 1219, at the Monastery of San Zoilo in Carrión de los Condes, located in the Province of Palencia, Beatrice of Swabia, daughter of Philip of Swabia, King of the Romans and Duke of Swabia, and of Irene Angelina, daughter of Isaac II Angelos, Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, with whom he had ten children:

After being widowed by his first wife, Beatrice of Swabia, King Ferdinand married in the city of Burgos in 1237 Joan of Ponthieu, with whom he had the following children:

Genealogy

Ancestors of Ferdinand III of Castile

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The full title was Rex Castelle et Toleti et Legionis et Gallecie et Seuille et Corduue et Murcie et Jaheni.: King of Castile and Toledo and León and Galicia (from 1230) and Seville (from 1248) and Córdoba (from 1237) and Murcia (from 1243) and Jaén (from 1246). See: Pascual Martínez Sopena and Ana Rodríguez (eds.): La construcción medieval de la memoria regia, Universitat de Valencia, 2011, p. 111. And also: Rafael Martín Rivera tells us, with regard to Ferdinand III: "Thus he appears titled in the official documents after the taking of Seville: «Ferdinand, by the grace of God, king of Castile and of Toledo, of León, of Galicia, of Seville, of Córdoba, of Murcia and of Jaén»." See: Rafael Martín Rivera: La idea de «Res publica» en la tradición política y jurídica castellana (siglos IX-XV), AHDE, vol. LXXXVI, 2016, p. 634; also explaining it in footnote number 64, giving examples of the royal intitulation: "Et ego prenominatus rex Ferrandus regnans in Castella et Toleto, Legione et Galezia et Corduba": ...in Castile and Toledo, León and Galicia and Córdoba.).
  2. ↑ According to Gonzalo Martínez Díez.[15]
  3. ↑ The various sources cite 1232 or 1235 as the year of the definitive conquest, although it seems that the town had already been occupied in the time of Alfonso VIII [1]
  4. ↑ It is not known whether this refers to Sanlúcar la Mayor or Sanlúcar de Barrameda[87]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Richard 2011, p. 23.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Lorenzo Lima 2013, pp. 110.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 X Premio de Música de la Universidad de La Laguna
  4. ↑ Richard 2011.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 98.
  6. ↑ Rodríguez López 1994, p. 161.
  7. ↑ Richard 2011, p. 26.
  8. ↑ Rodríguez López 1994, p. 92.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 150.
  10. ↑ Richard 2011, p. 27.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Rodríguez López 1994, pp. 93, 99.
  12. ↑ Lunas Almeida 1930, pp. 97–101.
  13. ↑ Martínez Díez 1993, pp. 34–35.
  14. ↑ Richard 2011, p. 29.
  15. ↑ Martínez Díez 1993, pp. 38–40.
  16. ↑ Rodríguez López 1994, p. 141.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 142.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 100.
  19. ↑ Richard 2011, p. 34.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 101.
  21. ↑ Rodríguez López 1994, p. 169.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 99.
  23. ↑ Rodríguez López 1994, pp. 99–100.
  24. ↑ Rodríguez López 1994, p. 143.
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  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 102.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 108.
  30. ↑ González Jiménez 2011, pp. 85.
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  32. ↑ Richard 2011, p. 53.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 112.
  34. ↑ Richard 2011, p. 56.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 María Antonia Carmona Ruiz (2010). "La conquista de Baeza" (in español). Fuero de Baeza. Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Jaén: 13–30. ISBN 978-84-8439-520-1. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN (link)
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Carlos de Ayala Martínez (2013). "El término "cruzada" en la documentación castellana de los siglos XII y principios del XIII". Intus-Legere Historia (in español). 7 (2): 77–93. ISSN 0718-5456
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 113.
  38. ↑ Richard 2011, pp. 58–59.
  39. ↑ González Jiménez 2011, pp. 93.
  40. ↑ González Jiménez 2011, pp. 96.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 114.
  42. ↑ González Jiménez 2011, pp. 97.
  43. ↑ Jesús Molero García y David Gallego Valle (2013). "El primer encastillamiento cristiano en el Campo de Montiel (1213-c. 1250)" (PDF) (in español). Alcaraz: del Islam al concejo castellano: 111–142. ISBN 978-84-616-4732-3. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN (link)
  44. ↑ Francisco de Asís Veas Arteseros (2002). "El Sureste en la Edad Media". Militaria. Revista de cultura militar (in español). 16: 19–46. ISSN 0214-8765
  45. ↑ Rodríguez López 1994, p. 115.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 117.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 118.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 172.
  49. ↑ Rodríguez López 1994, p. 173.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 174.
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Richard 2011, p. 79.
  52. ↑ Rodríguez López 1994, pp. 174–176.
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 119.
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 120.
  55. ↑ Rodríguez López 1994, pp. 119–120.
  56. ↑ Rodríguez López 1994, p. 137.
  57. ↑ Rodríguez López 1994, pp. 137–139.
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 58.3 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 121.
  59. ↑ Richard 2011, pp. 80–82.
  60. ↑ González Jiménez 2011, p. 142.
  61. ↑ Juan Higueras Maldonado (1974–1975). "Privilegios de Fernando III al concejo de Úbeda tras su reconquista". Cuadernos de estudios medievales y ciencias y técnicas historiográficas (in español) (2–3): 199–214.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date format (link) ISSN 1132-7553
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  63. ↑ Rodríguez López 1994, p. 122.
  64. ↑ Rodríguez López 1994, pp. 121–122.
  65. ↑ González Jiménez 2011, p. 143 and 324 n. 7.
  66. ↑ Joaquín Mercado Egea (1995). "La Encomienda de Montizón y Chiclana (Orden de Santiago)". Boletín del Instituto de Estudios Giennenses (in español) (156): 115–194. ISSN 0561-3590
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 Rodríguez López 1994, pp. 122–123.
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 68.3 68.4 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 124.
  69. ↑ Richard 2011, p. 97.
  70. ↑ Rodríguez López 1994, p. 127.
  71. ↑ Richard 2011, p. 101.
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 72.2 72.3 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 128.
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 73.2 73.3 73.4 73.5 73.6 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 129.
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 Richard 2011, p. 109.
  75. ↑ Richard 2011, p. 111.
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 130.
  77. ↑ Richard 2011, p. 114.
  78. ↑ Ros 2011, p. 149.
  79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 79.2 79.3 79.4 79.5 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 131.
  80. ↑ Díez Arnal, J. "Catedral de Sevilla" (in español).
  81. ↑ De Mena 1990, pp. 80–83.
  82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 82.2 82.3 De Mena 1990, pp. 83–84.
  83. ↑ De Mena 1990, p. 89.
  84. ↑ Rodríguez López 1994, pp. 131–132.
  85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 85.2 85.3 Rodríguez López 1994, p. 133.
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  87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 González Jiménez 2011, p. 241.
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  89. ↑ 89.0 89.1 Manuel González Jiménez. "Fernando III el Santo y Alfonso X el Sabio: A propósito de un 750 aniversario" (PDF). Boletín de la Real Academia Sevillana de Buenas. Minervae Baeticae (in español) (30): 73–86. ISSN 0214-4395
  90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 González Jiménez 2011, pp. 256–257.
  91. ↑ "Libro de los doce sabios" (in español). Filosofía en español.
  92. ↑ Richard 2011, p. 104.
  93. ↑ 93.0 93.1 Richard 2011, p. 159.
  94. ↑ Elías de Tejada, Francisco; Pércopo, Gabriella (1966). El Reino de Galicia hasta 1700 (in español). Editorial Galaxia. p. 67.
  95. ↑ Varios autores 2004, p. 376.
  96. ↑ 96.0 96.1 Richard 2011, p. 166.
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  98. ↑ 98.0 98.1 González Gómez 2011, p. 260-264.
  99. ↑ 99.0 99.1 Ros 2003, pp. 182–185.
  100. ↑ Richard 2011, p. 170.
  101. ↑ 101.0 101.1 Richard 2011, p. 172.
  102. ↑ Richard 2011, p. 173.
  103. ↑ Arco y Garay 1954, p. 229.
  104. ↑ Arco y Garay 1954, p. 106.
  105. ↑ Arco y Garay 1954, p. 110.
  106. ↑ Arco y Garay 1954, p. 109.
  107. ↑ Arco y Garay 1954, p. 113.
  108. ↑ Morales 1999, p. 126.
  109. ↑ 109.0 109.1 109.2 109.3 109.4 109.5 109.6 109.7 Quiles García 2005, p. 57 ff..
  110. ↑ "Ceuta reúne por San Fernando a los Ingenieros con más solera" (in español). May 31, 2011. Retrieved October 15, 2012.
  111. ↑ "El Mando de Ingenieros celebra con San Fernando la construcción de la nueva base en Afganistán" (in español). June 6, 2011. Retrieved October 15, 2012.
  112. ↑ "La diócesis de Tenerife. Apuntes para su historia: de los orígenes hasta su restablecimiento definitivo" (in español). p. 126.
  113. ↑ Richard 2011, p. 131-135.
  114. ↑ González Jiménez 2011, pp. 72–73.
  115. ↑ 115.0 115.1 115.2 115.3 115.4 115.5 115.6 González Jiménez 2011, p. 75.
  116. ↑ 116.0 116.1 González Jiménez 2011, p. 312.
  117. ↑ 117.0 117.1 117.2 117.3 117.4 González Jiménez 2011, pp. 330-331 n. 9.

Bibliography

Further reading

  • Ansón, Francisco (1998). Fernando III (in español). Ediciones Palabra. ISBN 84-8239-233-6.
  • Ayala Martínez, Carlos de (2014). "La realeza en la cronística castellano-leonesa del siglo XIII: La imagen de Fernando III". Monarquía, crónicas, archivos y cancillerías en los reinos hispano-cristianos: siglos XIII-XV (PDF) (in español). Sarasa, Esteban (coord.). Institución «Fernando el Católico» (C.S.I.C.). pp. 247–276. ISBN 978-84-9911-307-4.
  • Costas Rodríguez, Jenaro (2002). Fernando III a través de las crónicas medievales (in español). Ayuntamiento de Zamora, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia. Centro Asociado de Zamora. ISBN 84-920677-5-6.
  • González, Julio (1983). Reinado y diplomas de Fernando III (in español). 3 vols. Confederación Española de Cajas de Ahorros. ISBN 84-7231-855-9.
  • — (2006). Las conquistas de Fernando III en Andalucía (in español). Editorial Maxtor Librería. ISBN 84-9761-277-9.
  • Morales, Alfredo J. (1979). Publicaciones de la Excma. Diputación Provincial de Sevilla (ed.). La Capilla Real de Sevilla (in español). Jerez de la Frontera. ISBN 84-500-3316-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Rodríguez Bueno, Pedro (2008). En torno a la Sevilla del siglo XIII: Fernando III el Santo y Alfonso X el Sabio (in español). Asociación Cultural Alfonso X el Sabio. ISBN 978-84-612-3194-2.
  • VV.AA. (2003). Fernando III y su tiempo (1201-1252) (in español). VIII Congreso de Estudios Medievales de la Fundación Sánchez-Albornoz celebrado en 2001 en León. Fundación Sánchez-Albornoz. ISBN 84-923109-3-6.
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