Carlos Gardel

Carlos Gardel
Carlos Gardel
Born	a) Carlos; b) Charles Romuald Gardes; a) December 11, between 1883 and 1887; b) December 11, 1890; Disputed; a) Tacuarembó (Uruguay); b) Toulouse (France)
Died	June 24, 1935; Medellín, Colombia
Cause of death	Plane crash
Other names	Carlitos, El Zorzal Criollo, El Morocho del Abasto, El Mago, El Rey del Tango, El Mudo, El Troesma.
Years active	1912–1935
Height	1.70 m (5 ft 7 in)
Instruments	Voice, guitar
Genres	Tango, milonga, folk music
Labels	Columbia Records, 1912; Odeón, 1917; RCA Victor, 1935
Associated acts	José Razzano, Alfredo Le Pera, José Ricardo, Guillermo Barbieri, José María Aguilar, Ángel Domingo Riverol, Juan Cruz Mateo
Voice type	Tenor until 1933; Light baritone from 1934
Signature

Carlos Gardel (December 11, between 1883 and 1890 – June 24, 1935) was an Argentine singer, composer and film actor.

Gardel was the most prominent figure in the history of tango, and one of the most influential performers of popular music worldwide in the first half of the 20th century.^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6] Described variously as a baritone or a tenor because of his wide vocal range, he was known for his extraordinary voice and dramatic phrasing. Together with the lyricist and collaborator Alfredo Le Pera, Gardel wrote several classic tangos.

Along with Le Pera and other members of his group, Gardel died at the height of his career, on June 24, 1935, in a plane crash in Medellín (Colombia), becoming an archetypal tragic hero who was mourned throughout Latin America. His person and image have been the object of popular idolatry, especially in Argentina and Uruguay, where he has been turned into a cultural symbol that still remains relevant today.^[7]

In 2003 Gardel's voice was inscribed by UNESCO in the Memory of the World program, devoted to the preservation of documents belonging to the historical heritage of the peoples of the world.^[8] At the same time, his voice and his memory are alluded to with the phrase "cada día, canta mejor" ("every day, he sings better").^[9]

Biography

Childhood and adolescence

Gardel's date and country of birth are subject to historical controversy (see section Controversies over his place of birth). In 1967, the Uruguayan writer Erasmo Silva Cabrera published a controversial theory, claiming that Gardel was born in Tacuarembó, Uruguay. Other authors expanded on this theory, and a museum dedicated to Gardel was even established in Tacuarembó. However, many of Gardel's friends and relatives knew him as a French immigrant from Toulouse, and in addition there are French birth and baptism records from the city of Toulouse.

What is known with certainty is that he lived in Buenos Aires from childhood and became a naturalized Argentine in 1923. It is also known that he was abandoned by his father and that he lived in Buenos Aires at least from 1893, in rooms in conventillos (tenement houses) that he shared with his mother,^[10]^[11]^[12] although with interruptions that vary according to the historian.

In 1927 Gardel would buy a house in the Abasto neighborhood, where he would move with his mother. It is speculated that the young Gardel, during the first decade of the 20th century, may have engaged in conduct and frequented circles on the margins of legality, as shown by police records from 1904 and 1915 that mention him and whose fingerprints match his, as proven by an investigation carried out by the criminologist Raúl Torre and the forensic physician Juan José Fenoglio.^[13]^[14]

Artistic beginnings

During his childhood and adolescence, Gardel lived in extremely poor rooming houses or conventillos, located in the San Nicolás neighborhood: first at Uruguay 162 and then at Corrientes 1553. With his first earnings as a professional musician in 1914 he moved, always with his mother, to a modest apartment at Corrientes 1714.^[15] The extreme poverty and degrading living conditions of the Buenos Aires conventillos in the era of the great immigration have been studied in sociological works,^[16] and represented in artistic works, such as El conventillo de la Paloma. His friend and chauffeur Antonio Sumaje recounted that when Gardel was already a star he would often ask him to take him to the conventillos where he had lived as a child, especially the one at Uruguay 162, where he would get out and stand looking at the façade:

Suddenly, moved to tears, he would quickly get back into the car. And then he would remain silent for a very long while.

— Antonio Sumaje (Gardel's chauffeur)^[17]

The neighborhood in which Gardel grew up is the Buenos Aires theater district, whose axis is Corrientes Street, later turned into an avenue. This allowed him from a very early age to be in contact with the world of the theater. His mother worked ironing clothes, sometimes for some of those theaters, and he himself was recruited by a character known as «Patasanta», who organized claques of applauders in the theaters, charging money for providing that service. With Patasanta's «troupe of cheerleaders», Gardel was a claqueur, prop man and walk-on (extra), in exchange for being able to attend the shows and receive tickets.^[18] In this way he managed to be in contact with actors and singers, whose vocal exercises and other habits he would imitate, which would be of importance for his future artistic training:

That was my first artistic knowledge and that is how I managed to obtain that white voice with which I made myself known.

— Carlos Gardel^[19]

Thus, among many other informal jobs, he worked as a stagehand at the Teatro de la Victoria, where he heard the Spanish zarzuela singer Sagi Barba, with whom he even took his first informal singing lessons, and in 1902 he moved to the Teatro Ópera, where he met the Italian baritone Titta Ruffo.^[20]

At that time, already a teenager, he began to frequent the Abasto neighborhood, a working-class neighborhood recently organized around the then-new market, opened in 1893. Gardel was invited by a group of young men (José «El Tanito» Oriente, Domingo «Daguita» Vito) to join the «barra» (crowd) of the café O'Rondeman, which was at Agüero and Humahuaca.^[21] The café was owned by the Traverso brothers (Alberto or «Giggio», Constancio, Félix and José or «Cielito»). It was run by the first of them, «Gordo» Giggio or Yiyo, who would establish with Gardel a relationship of great mutual affection, with father-son characteristics, to the point that when he died in 1923, Carlos was one of the pallbearers. The Traverso brothers, led by Constancio, dominated the Abasto neighborhood politically, on behalf of the National Autonomist Party, the conservative party founded by Julio Argentino Roca that governed the country without alternation, on the basis of electoral fraud, between 1874 and 1916. The young Gardel was a protégé of the Traverso brothers, who from the outset valued the quality of his singing—of great importance for organizing popular sociability—and promoted his performances both at the Bar O'Rondeman and at the conservative committees of the neighborhood, of other areas of the city, and even of Avellaneda, where he became associated with the strongman of Buenos Aires Province conservatism, Alberto Barceló, and his famous enforcer Ruggierito.^[22]^[23]

Gardel began to sing semi-professionally at the Traversos' café and at the conservative committee at Anchorena 666. Years later, in 1927, he moved with his mother to a house he bought exactly around the corner from the committee, today the Carlos Gardel House Museum. At that time popular singing was dominated by the art of the payada, whose greatest figure was Gabino Ezeiza.^[24] Gardel did not have the ability to improvise his own verses as he sang, which was the decisive characteristic for the success of the payadores, but the quality of his voice gradually opened the way for him.^[25] «Gardel was never a payador; he was a singer», says the historian Pablo Taboada.^[26]

From that time dates Gardel's relationship with the payada, especially with José Betinotti, who is credited with giving him the nickname «Zorzalito» or «Zorzal Criollo», that is, the name of one of the characteristic birds of the pampas, the zorzal (thrush), noted for the beauty of its song.^[27] One of the first songs Gardel recorded was «Pobre mi madre querida», Betinotti's most famous song.^[27] Also from this period dates his relationship with the payador Arturo de Nava.^[28] In 1922, the Gardel-Razzano duo would record De Nava's most famous work, «El carretero», which became Gardel's main hit on his first tour of France (1928/1929) and which was later included among the famous musical short films made in 1930, in which Gardel appears talking with the payador, by then in the decline of his career, who thanks him for singing his song.

Throughout that entire first decade as a singer, Gardel never sang a tango, although he danced it. He built his singing style on the payada and country songs, but also on the Neapolitan canzonetta and opera.^[25]^[24]^[29]

In 1910, while still unknown to the public, he sang one night for a regular gathering of jockeys and thoroughbred horse trainers at the La Frazenda tearoom, in Bajo Belgrano, on the occasion of having bet on a mare that won the race, obtaining a significant profit. In 1936 a certain Laureano Gómez, who was present that night, published an account of Gardel's performance:

He presented himself as a good-looking young man, discreetly dressed. He was introduced to the gathering by a Mr. Vedoya, owner of a stable at the old Hipódromo Nacional. [...] This dark-haired youngster puts deep feeling into the criollo tunes. It is a pleasure to hear him. [...] Those present asked him to keep singing, shouting «Morocho, sing this one», «Morocho, sing that one», «Morocho this», etc.

— Laureano Gómez

By the second decade of the 20th century, Gardel was commonly referred to as El Morocho del Abasto.^[25]

The Gardel-Razzano duo

At the beginning of the second decade of the 20th century Carlos Gardel met the Uruguayan José Razzano, El Oriental. In his Memoirs Razzano places that meeting in 1911, at the house of a friend located on Guardia Vieja Street, a few meters from the Abasto Market. Years later that part of the street, between Jean Jaurés and Anchorena, would be renamed Pasaje Carlos Gardel.

Gardel had already begun singing as a duo with Francisco Martino, joined by Razzano and shortly afterward by Saúl Salinas from Cuyo. What is certain is that the four remained linked, singing alternately in duos, trio and quartet, in various neighborhoods and cities of Argentina on a semi-professional basis, until little by little the Gardel-Razzano duo emerged, establishing its circle of friends and its artistic base at the Café de los Angelitos, a midpoint between the Abasto—where Gardel hung out—and Balvanera Sur, where the Café del Pelado was located at Moreno and Entre Ríos (still standing), where Razzano hung out.^[24]^[30]

In that period the Casa Tagini, which held the representation of Columbia Records and had become the leading record company in Argentina, hired Gardel to record in 1912 seven double-sided discs with songs of his choosing, which were released on the market in 1913, when he was still unknown.^[24]^[31] Those discs are the first record of the young singer presenting himself under the name Carlos Gardel.^[32] The seven discs were the following:

T594: «La mañanita» (anonymous), estilo / «Me dejaste» (lyrics: A. Cepeda; music: anonymous), estilo
T595: «Mi madre querida» (Betinotti), estilo / «Es en vano» (lyrics: F. Curlando; music: Gardel), canción
T637: «Pobre flor» (lyrics: anonymous; music: C. Gardel), estilo / «La mariposa» (lyrics: A. Cepeda; music: Gardel/Razzano), estilo
T638: «El almohadón» (lyrics: A. Cepeda; music: Gardel), waltz / «Brisas de la tarde» (lyrics: J. Mármol; M.: Gardel/Razzano), canción.
T728: «El tirador plateado» (lyrics: O. Orozco; music: Gardel/Razzano), estilo / «Yo sé hacer» (lyrics: A. Cepeda; music: C. Gardel), cifra
T729: «Mi china cabrera» (lyrics: anonymous; music: C. Gardel), estilo / «Pobre madre» (lyrics: Cepeda; music: Gardel), estilo
T730: «El sueño» (lyrics: Cepeda; music: F. Martino), estilo / «A Mitre» (lyrics: J. Etchepare; music: P. Vázquez), waltz.^[33]^[34]^[35]

The term «estilo» was the one used at the time to refer to country and rural rhythms. For that reason singers like Gardel were called «estilistas». Some decades later, in Argentina the term «folklore» began to be used to designate those musical genres.^[36] In the repertoire chosen by Gardel, «Mi madre querida» stands out ―the emblematic song of the payador José Betinotti― as well as six poems set to music by Andrés Cepeda ―a poet murdered two years earlier and harassed by the police because of his anarchist ideas and his homosexual condition, who moved the sensibility of the young Gardel―.^[37] The result was not as expected and Gardel would have to wait until 1917 to record again.

In 1914 Gardel and Razzano were hired to sing at the sumptuous Armenonville cabaret in Buenos Aires, for a fee of 70 pesos a night, an unexpected sum that Gardel mistook for the fortnightly pay.^[31]^[38] Gobello considers that this was Gardel's first professional performance.^[36] The success of their performances at the Armenonville opened the doors for the duo to the great stages of Buenos Aires entertainment. A few days later the celebrated Pablo Podestá hired them to sing for two weeks in the show he was about to premiere at the Teatro Nacional, their first performance on Corrientes Street.^[36]^[31]

Years later, in a letter to Razzano written from Paris, Gardel would recall that debut at the Armenonville as follows:

My old and dear Pepe: Yesterday I spent two hours, amid drinks, chatter and revelry, at «El Garrón» on the Rue Fontaine. It's a tavern like the ones in Once, no more, no less. But these days it fills up with Frenchies, Americans, even Japanese, with an impressive load of cash. Tango fever takes them there. I was remembering that debut of the Gardel-Razzano duo, at the old «Armenonville»... Do you remember the fright I had? Now here, suddenly turned into a gentleman, I realize that, with all the hard times we went through, at the old «Armenonville» we were among people just like us, who felt the tango as much as we did. Here, on the other hand, the gotán is a passing and capricious fad like all of them. Get this: to sing tangos, you have to dress as a gaucho.

— Carlos Gardel^[39]

1915 was a complex year for Gardel, in which the difficulties of the past and the successes of the future seemed to merge.^[40] In the middle of the year they were contacted by the Uruguayan impresario Manuel Barca, who had gone to Buenos Aires to hire them to perform in Montevideo. The young men received the offer incredulous and insecure. The distinguished Montevidean historian Julio César Puppo recounts that meeting as follows:

Just then Gardel arrives: he is a fat, round young man.
―Will we at least have enough to get back to Buenos Aires?
It is a historic phrase: he was wondering whether they would get enough for the fare at that time, which cost three pesos round trip, including dinner and breakfast. There were people who made the trip just to eat. Yet these boys were uneasy in the face of uncertainty. A very hard experience weighed on them. And Barca, who had also been educated in the rigorous school of the street, understood it at once.
―How much do you want to earn? ―he asks them.
The men look at each other, ponder for a moment, after which Razzano speaks up:
―Tell me frankly: is fifty pesos a day too much to ask?
They were Argentine pesos.
―You don't know what you're worth! ―Barca replies, sincerely moved. And the deal was closed.

— Julio César Puppo (Ese mundo del bajo, 1966)^[41]

Montevideo received them as if they were celebrities, with the city papered with their portraits and a program of activities that included being welcomed at the port, taken to breakfast, interviews with the press and a private performance for influential people. On June 18 they debuted at the Teatro Royal, to a full house, and for the first time the audience asked them to repeat the songs, shouting «play another one, Carlitos». Puppo says that at the end of the show Gardel began to cry with emotion in the dressing room.^[41] From then on Gardel would feel at home in Montevideo, with his own circle of friends; he would return to sing there again and again, and at the end of his life he had a house built there in which he never got to live because of the accident that cost him his life.

A few days later, his undocumented status led him to provide false information to obtain documents that would allow him to travel to Brazil, on a tour of the Compañía Dramática Rioplatense headed by Elías Alippi, in which the duo was assigned the closing act.^[42]^[43] On the ship he met the Neapolitan opera tenor Enrico Caruso, who praised Gardel's voice, but the company's performances in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro could not overcome the language barrier, although the duo's performance received praise from the Brazilian press. To make matters worse, Gardel was arrested by the Brazilian police after being found in the company of Argentine criminals who had settled there.^[42] The file opened to process the documentation also revealed that Gardel had a record as a small-time swindler for carrying out confidence tricks («cuentos del tío»).^[13]^[43] These facts would, years later, block the project to name Corrientes Avenue after him.^[43]

On the ship back from Brazil Alippi offered the duo a part in a new production of Juan Moreira, the famous foundational work of Argentine theater, successfully premiered on November 12 at the San Martín theater. Los Gardel Razzano sang in an always celebrated musical scene in a pulpería in which Moreira dances, premiering on that occasion the cueca «Corazones partidos» by their former partner Saúl Salinas.^[44]^[45]^[46] On that occasion the duo was accompanied by 20 guitarists headed by José Ricardo and Horacio Pettorossi. The difference in quality led them from then on to hire Ricardo as the duo's permanent guitarist, while Pettorossi would join Gardel's group of guitarists in the 1930s.^[46]

Before the end of the year, on the night of December 10 to 11, 1915, he was shot in a confusing episode. It happened during a street altercation after celebrating his birthday at the Palais de Glace (a dance hall of the time in the Recoleta neighborhood), when he was accompanied by the actors Elías Alippi and Carlos Morganti. By then Gardel was already well known and the event appeared in the police news of the newspapers La Prensa and La Razón («Attack on Gardel»), where it was reported that the attackers were a certain Roberto Guevara—the one who fired the shot—and Moreno Gallegos Serna, probably underworld thugs, the latter mentioned by Eduardo Arolas when dedicating his tango «Suipacha» to him.^[40]^[47]^[48] The causes of the attack and the events that followed remain unclear.^[40] His friend Edmundo Guibourg relates that after the attack, Gardel went to Tacuarembó to recover, where he met the younger brother of the political boss Traverso, «Cielito Traverso», who was hiding there for having killed a man at the Armenonville cabaret.^[47] The false information has also been spread that the thug Roberto Guevara was in fact Roberto Guevara Lynch, uncle of the not-yet-born Che Guevara and a member of a wealthy Buenos Aires family.^[40]^[31] Finally, when Gardel died the bullet would appear in his autopsy, also giving rise to hypotheses about an armed confrontation on the airplane that would have caused the accident that cost him his life.^[40]

In the second decade of the 20th century the Buenos Aires entertainment world was characterized by an enormous spread of varieté, a format that arose in France and was taken from Spain, consisting of a succession of short acts of the most diverse kinds (musical, dramatic, comic, circus, magic, etc.). After starting in 1916, during the summer season in Mar del Plata, in the middle of the year they were hired to perform at the Teatro Esmeralda (later the Teatro Maipo), located a few meters from the famous tango corner of Corrientes and Esmeralda, and at the beginning of the following year they also debuted at the nearby Empire Theatre, at Corrientes and Maipú, both aimed at an audience with greater purchasing power. The success was consecrating and their performances would continue at both theaters for six years.^[49]

In that early period the Gardel-Razzano duo's performance alternated songs sung as soloists and songs as a duo. The famous folklorist Osvaldo Sosa Cordero remembered seeing them when he was a teenager and recounted that they opened the show as a duo performing «Brisas de la tarde», the duo's first song, on a poem by José Mármol, after which Razzano sang the cifra «Entre colores», one of the songs with which he was identified. Then they sang as a duo «Cantar eterno» by Villoldo and the gato «El sol del 25». Gardel's favorites to close with were two songs about horses, Gardel's great passion: «El moro» (on a poem by Juan María Gutiérrez) and «El pangaré».^[50]^[51] Indeed, in the incident in which he was shot, the gunman had shouted «You won't sing "El moro" anymore!».^[52]

At the same time Gardel would return to recording and would never stop from then on. Once the leonine contract with the Tagini-Columbia record company had expired, he reached an agreement with the company of Max Glücksmann, under labels such as Disco Nacional and Odeon. The contract set an amount of four cents per record sold (double-sided singles). On those 1917 records the duo recorded its repertoire, including «Mi noche triste», the first tango Gardel recorded.^[53] The records sold massively, in quantities exceeding 50,000 units each, with earnings on the order of 8,000 pesos for each.

Finally Gardel would crown that exceptional year by starring in the silent film Flor de durazno,^[54] based on a successful novel by Hugo Wast,^[55] which was directed by Francisco Defilippis Novoa and in which he played the protagonist Fabián. It is one of the first feature films of Latin American cinema, when it was still silent,^[56] which indicates the comprehensive vision of entertainment that Gardel was developing. Gardel was on the verge of abandoning the shoot, dissatisfied with his acting, but was persuaded to stay by the director, with the argument of including several sequences of him singing, a dubious argument considering that it was a silent film, although there is information that in 1940 a sound version of the film was screened, which perhaps included those fragments.^[56] Flor de durazno premiered on September 28, 1917, with an excellent response from the public, remaining on the bill for several years and exceeding 800 screenings.^[57]

Gardel's growing concern with his image, which had its antecedents in his famous smile and the charm that characterized him from the beginning,^[7] would also become evident in the first studio photos he began to commission, above all from the man who would become his favorite photographer, the Spanish-Uruguayan José María Silva, and in the work he would begin to slim down his body, considering that Gardel was a short man (less than 1.70 m tall) and that at the time he weighed about 120 kilos.^[58] The biographers Julián and Osvaldo Barsky say that these behaviors of Gardel indicated «his effort to construct the leading-man singer, a figure that would project him internationally».^[59]

The massive success of the duo and of Gardel in particular, as well as his entry into tango, coincided with a moment of great importance in the political and social life of Argentina: the conquest of democracy. Political and trade-union pressure had forced the conservative government to approve a law of secret and compulsory voting (for men only), which gave victory in 1916 to the Radical party, a widely popular movement that brought Hipólito Yrigoyen to the presidency.

Tango singer

Carlos Gardel listening to himself on an Orthophonic Victrola, launched by the Victor company in 1925. The record in 78 rpm format was decisive for the spread of Gardel's art in space and time. In his lifetime Gardel recorded some 800 different songs, an enormous number, half of what Bing Crosby recorded over a career three times longer.^[60]

In 1917 Gardel sang and recorded a tango for the first time. It was the tango «Mi noche triste», a piece of music composed by Samuel Castriota titled «Lita» to which Pascual Contursi had set lyrics. Gardel's performance of «Mi noche triste» is considered the birth date of the tango canción: after decades of evolution, tango had begun to find singers and lyricists capable of interpreting the same emotional cadence already expressed by the music and the dance of tango.

The success of the novel style of the tango canción was not immediate. «Mi noche triste», with its lunfardo lyrics and its theme of the common man abandoned by his woman («Percanta que me amuraste»), was received by the public without any overflowing enthusiasm. On the other hand, the "pure" singers looked askance at that street language and that prosaic and tasteless sensuality, which departed from "true criollo art".^[61] The great Gabino Ezeiza clearly stated the rejection of tango when advising Carlos Marambio Catán:

Tango is a caricature of music and literature, of bastard and dirty origin. You must sing what is ours, not that invention of upstarts who want to impose their demonic customs and vices on us. Don't do that, young man, don't soil your performance with such a profanation of art and good taste.

— Gabino Ezeiza^[62]

The following year (1918) the sainete Los dientes del perro, staged by the Muiño-Alippi company, included a scene in which the very young actress Manolita Poli sang "Mi noche triste". The number caused a sensation and was decisive in making both the play and Gardel's version, released on record that year, a great success.^[63] From then on the sainete and tango would establish a close bond, promoting each other.^[64]

That year Gardel recorded another tango, "A fuego lento", also by Contursi, and little by little he built a repertoire made up mostly of tangos.^[36]^[30]

Gardel's voice and manner of singing also evolved as he became a tango singer. Gardel drew on his origins in the world of the payada and his taste for the Neapolitan canzonetta and opera,^[29] in a city considered "the most Italian outside Italy",^[65] in which people of Italian origin, especially the young, had become the largest ethnic group,^[66] to develop a slower, deeper, more melancholic and less anxious singing, characterized by an emotional interpretation that connected it to the feelings of the listener.^[67]

Slowly, Gardel becomes a tango singer. He must create the way to sing them because no one, except Contursi, has done it before him. What Villoldo, Gobbi, Mathon and the cuplé singers sang were not tangos as we now understand them, but a hybrid of cuplé and milonga... He did not reach the summit until seven years later, in 1924, when he sang "Príncipe".

— José Gobello^[36]^[67]

In 1919 only one of the thirteen songs Gardel recorded that year was a tango. In 1920 there were already six out of twenty-four (25%) and in 1921, eight out of twenty-two (30%). Until in 1922 tangos exceeded half: twelve out of twenty-one songs recorded.^[68] In that period the duo added a second guitarist, Guillermo Barbieri, and in 1923 Gardel premiered the tango "Mano a mano" («Rechiflado en mi tristeza»), with lyrics by Celedonio Flores, a remarkable poet discovered by Gardel in 1920, of whom he had already recorded "Margot". "Mano a mano" became one of Gardel's greatest hits, marking the moment in which the tango canción finished establishing itself and, together with the instrumental transformations of musicians such as Julio de Caro, an era of fullness opened for the genre: the Guardia Nueva. In total Gardel would record 21 tangos by El Negro Cele, among them El bulín de la calle Ayacucho, "Malevito", "Viejo smoking", "Mala entraña", "Canchero" and "Pan".^[69] Flores is also the author of the lyrics of the famous tango "Corrientes y Esmeralda" (1933), which says "en tu esquina rea, cualquier cacatúa sueña con la pinta de Carlos Gardel". Out of humility, Gardel refrained from singing that celebrated tango that idolized him in his lifetime.^[69]

Gardel, however, would never stop singing the most varied popular rhythms. Through musicians such as Cristino Tapia from Córdoba and Andrés Chazarreta from Santiago del Estero he included new songs from northern Argentine folklore, while incorporating Chilean cuecas, Colombian bambucos, foxtrots, shimmies, waltzes, Spanish tangos, songs in Italian, French and English, and even a Russian ballad like "Sonia", composed by a Hungarian and an Austrian Jew who years later would be murdered by the Nazis in Auschwitz, or a tango with expressions in Guaraní such as "Los indios" by Canaro and Caruso.^[70] The researcher Félix Scolatti, who accompanied the duo on its only tour of Chile in 1917, recounted that Gardel was constantly looking for new popular rhythms and that he listened attentively to what ordinary people sang in the streets and squares, memorizing the songs and taking notes, in order to identify them afterward.^[71]

In 1920 he applied at the Uruguayan consulate in Buenos Aires for a certificate of nationality and an identity card, in which he declared that he had been born in Tacuarembó, Uruguay, in 1887. In 1923, with the Uruguayan documents obtained, he applied for Argentine nationality, which was granted to him immediately, and the Argentine passport he would use to travel was issued.^[72]

Spain and France

Consolidated in his mastery of the tango canción and with his duo with Razzano at the highest point of celebrity in Argentina, Gardel was now in a position to aim at Europe and at the international music market created by the record, a market that in the immediate future would be amplified by film and radio.

Tango had been spreading as a fashionable dance in Europe since the first decade of the 20th century, with tangomania breaking out shortly before the First World War (1914-1918). In 1921 the Italian Rudolph Valentino, adopting the identity of an Argentine tango dancer dressed as a gaucho, caused a worldwide sensation with the film The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse. Spain in particular had a tango history even prior to the Argentine tango (the tango flamenco) and would develop an important autonomous strand of the genre, with its epicenter in Barcelona and with paradigmatic songs, such as «Fumando espero» by the Catalan Juan Viladomat Masanas (lyrics by Félix Garzo), and specialized magazines such as Tango Moda.^[73] In that context Gardel was about to show the world a way of singing tango that would make him celebrated in the history of popular music.

In 1923 the Gardel-Razzano duo had the opportunity to make its first tour of Europe, specifically of Spain, accompanying the theater company headed by the actress Matilde Rivera and her husband the actor Enrique de Rosas. As a stage strategy derived from the international stereotype of Argentina, the theater impresarios insisted that the musicians appear dressed as gauchos, although in Buenos Aires they performed in tuxedos. For that reason, before leaving they had a new series of photos taken in Montevideo by José María Silva, dressed up as gauchos. They debuted on December 10 at the Teatro Apolo in Madrid, performing with their two guitarists as the «closing act», after the dramatic performance the company gave each night. The reviews of the duo were good and after 40 performances, and with the mission of having landed in Europe accomplished, they left the company to go to France, where they got to know Paris and Gardel visited the Gardes family in Toulouse.^[74]

In September 1925, after 12 years of singing together and due to an injury to Razzano's larynx, the duo decided to split up, with Razzano taking on managerial functions.^[25] Years later, after rigorous phoniatric work, Razzano would try to return to singing, but without much success. From that final attempt the duo's last two recordings would remain, «Claveles mendocinos» by A. Pelaia and «Serrana impía», by José del Valle, recorded on the last day of 1929.^[75]

Teatro Goya in Barcelona, where Gardel debuted on November 5, 1925, a city that established an intense bond with the singer.

Meanwhile, now as a soloist, Gardel toured Europe again, performing once more in Spain (1925/1926 and 1927) and then in France (1928/1929). The 1925/1926 tour, with the same theater company as the one two years earlier, this time also included Barcelona, a city that would establish a very special bond with Gardel.^[76] The success he obtained there led him to extend his performances from an initial ten days to two months. In Barcelona Gardel also recorded twenty-one songs, including a tango offered to him at that moment by the Madrid pianist Teodoro Diez Cepeda, «Dolor»,^[77] the first of several Spanish tangos and songs that Gardel would record in the future,^[78] an expression of his constant vocation to connect with the popular song of each place. On the 1925/1926 tour, Gardel also performed with moderate success in Madrid and in Vitoria, in the Basque Country, where until then he had been completely unknown.^[79]

While in Barcelona Gardel recorded several songs for the Odeón label, using for the first time electrical recording with a microphone (previously an acoustic recording horn was used), the most significant technological change until the discovery of the LP at the end of the 1940s.^[80] In Argentina, Gardel would begin recording using this system from November 1926. The quality of his recordings would improve notably from then on.^[81] 1926 and 1927 were the years in which he recorded the most records, exceeding 100 songs in both. Among the hits of that time are «Bajo Belgrano» and «Siga el corso» («Esa Colombina puso en sus ojeras humo de la hoguera de su corazón»), both by Aieta and García Jiménez, the first version of «Caminito», «A media luz» («Corrientes 348, segundo piso ascensor»), «Tiempos viejos» («¿Te acordás, hermano? ¡Qué tiempos aquellos!») by Canaro and Romero, as well as the first songs by young lyricists who would become classics, such as Enrique Cadícamo and Enrique Santos Discépolo («Que vachaché»).

In 1927 Gardel bought, for himself and his mother, his first and only home of his own, located at Bermejo Street (later Jean Jaurés) 735, a simple house in the heart of his spiritual neighborhood, the Abasto, exactly around the corner from the conservative committee where he had begun to sing.

At the end of 1927 Gardel began a new tour of Spain, the third, performing in Barcelona, Madrid, Bilbao and Santander, with overwhelming success. «Gardel came and we learned what Argentine tangos were», summed up the Catalan journalist and musician Brauli Solsona at the time.^[82] Before returning to Buenos Aires, Gardel stopped in Paris, where he closed a contract to perform in Paris in the second half of 1928.

His stay in Buenos Aires was brief, and after recording several records (among them Discépolo's first hit «Esta noche me emborracho»), singing on Radio Prieto, performing at the Teatro Solís in Montevideo and hiring a third guitarist, José «Indio» Aguilar, he sailed again for Europe, this time bound for Paris.

When Gardel debuted in Paris, tango in France already had more than two decades of history and, together with jazz, was a protagonist of Parisian nightlife.^[83] The center of nightlife in Paris was Montmartre and the adjoining Pigalle square, and the center of tango life was the restaurant «El Garrón», where for almost a decade the musician Manuel Pizarro had shone, who played a crucial role in promoting Gardel's hiring. «However —say the biographers Barsky—, all that tango display of almost three decades (in Paris) lacked a great voice».^[84]

Gardel and his three guitarists (Ricardo, Barbieri and Aguilar) debuted in Paris on September 30, 1928, at a charity performance at the Fémina theater on Les Champs-Élysées and then on October 2 at the Florida cabaret, in Montmartre. His performances lasted until April 1929, also appearing at the Empire and Paramount theaters, as well as in the cities of Cannes and Monte Carlo, the high point being the invitation to take part in the distinguished charity event Bal des Petits Lits Blancs at the Paris Opera. He performed a varied repertoire, which included songs in French, which were very well received. From that repertoire the tangos «Adiós muchachos» and «Siga el corso» stood out, but above all the country song by Arturo de Nava, «El carretero», which Gardel performed with whistles, as if he himself were driving the oxen of the cart.^[85] The success was resounding, record sales exceeded all forecasts and Parisians whistled «El carretero» in the streets.^[86]^[87] At Christmas that year, his photo was on the cover of La Rampe, the main entertainment magazine, while the largest French newspaper, Le Figaro, had already described his performance in the City of Light as a «triumphant success» and explained the sensation he produced on the public as follows:^[88]

One has the impression that he exercises a sort of magnetic charm over the audience.

— Le Figaro^[89]

After performing for six months in Paris, Gardel performed one more month in Barcelona and Madrid, before returning to Buenos Aires, where he arrived on June 16, 1929, nine months after his departure. In Madrid, after fourteen years with Gardel, Ricardo decided to leave the group of guitarists, apparently displeased with the instrumental prominence that Aguilar sought.^[90]

He would remain in Buenos Aires for a year and a half. During that period he performed in Buenos Aires and Montevideo, made an extensive tour of the Argentine provinces, sang on Radio Nacional, underwent a small operation on his vocal cords and hired Domingo Riverol to replace Ricardo.

On September 6, 1930, a civic-military coup d'état took place in Argentina that overthrew the democratic President Hipólito Yrigoyen. It was the first of a series of interruptions of democratic institutions that would extend until 1983. On that occasion Gardel took a position in support of the coup by recording the tango «¡Viva la patria!» by Aieta and García Jiménez,^[91]^[92] which set him against the Yrigoyenist sectors of the Radical Civic Union, which on at least a couple of occasions boycotted his performances.^[92] At the same time Gardel began to have financial difficulties and disagreements with Razzano, who was acting as his manager, which earned him enmities in the circle of friends they shared and in artistic and journalistic circles.

Finally, in 1930 Gardel would begin a new way of spreading his singing, which would radically redefine his career and the mass reach of his art: film.

Film star

At the end of the 1920s the Argentine film industry showed enormous vitality that would make it one of the three most important in Hispanic America, together with Mexico and Brazil, during the 20th century.^[93] Carlos Gardel, for his part, had already made a significant incursion when film was silent, demonstrating his sensitivity in detecting the modern mechanisms for building mass popularity, even beyond national borders. His friend Enrique Cadícamo would say that:

...Gardel, at the height of his fame, thought of nothing but film.

— Enrique Cadícamo^[94]

In many respects Gardel would anticipate by decades mass cultural phenomena that unite passion, personal identification and music, such as the Beatlemania of the 1960s, or equivalent Latin phenomena such as Sandro, Soda Stereo and Luis Miguel, in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s.^[95] The critic Claudio Iván Remeseira has even used the word «Gardelmania» to refer to this last stage of Gardel's life.^[96]

The Argentine musical short films of 1930

In 1930 Gardel starred in fifteen musical sound short films, each built around a song, directed by Eduardo Morera and produced by Federico Valle, one of the pioneers of Latin American cinema. Valle had been born in Italy in 1880, and after working with the Lumière Brothers and taking classes with Georges Méliès, he emigrated to Argentina in 1911 and from then on produced dozens of film works of great value, including the first newsreels and the animated feature films of Quirino Cristiani, the first in the history of world cinema in their genre.

Of the fifteen shorts, five were ruined in the laboratory, among them one titled Leguisamo solo in which the jockey Irineo Leguisamo appeared. In 1995 another of the unreleased shorts was found, El quinielero, by Luis Cluzeau Mortet and Roberto Aubriot Barboza.^[97]

The ten shorts released were: El carretero, Añoranzas, Rosas de otoño, Mano a mano, Yira, yira, Tengo miedo, Padrino pelao, Enfundá la mandolina, Canchero and Viejo smoking.^[98]

The most elaborate of all is Viejo smoking, a tango with lyrics by Celedonio Flores and music by his guitarist Guillermo Barbieri, in which Gardel, before singing, performs a dramatic sketch with César Fiaschi and Inés Murray about unemployment, poverty and eviction, in the context of the Great Depression. Also notable are Yira, yira, El carretero, Mano a mano and Rosas de otoño, in which Gardel holds very significant dialogues with their authors, Enrique Santos Discépolo, the payador Arturo de Nava, Celedonio Flores and Francisco Canaro, respectively.^[98]

The short films were shot in Buenos Aires between October 23 and November 3, 1930, and premiered on May 3, 1931, at the Astral cinema on Corrientes Street. In some cases they were presented as «theatricalized tangos».^[97]

It has been claimed that Gardel's short films were the first music videos in the history of cinema and the first sound film production in Argentina and eventually Latin America.^[97] The claim is partially true. Gardel's short films constituted the first sound film production with a soundtrack incorporated into the film (Movietone system) made in Latin America, but since 1927 in the world (The Jazz Singer) and 1929 in Latin America (Mosaico criollo), musical sound films had been made using the synchronized disc system (Vitaphone system), and the Movietone system (soundtrack) had also previously been used to film musical clips of Sofía Bozán directed by José Bohr, although made in New York.^[97]^[99] Beyond the debate over chronological priority, Gardel's ten short films, directed by Morera and produced by Valle, constitute a pioneering effort both of the Latin American film industry and of the music video.

The French films

In January 1931 Gardel undertook a new tour of France, beginning with two months of successful performances in Nice, where he dismissed his guitarist Aguilar for a homophobic remark against him.^[100] At the end of April he arrived in Paris with the firm determination to shoot a film at the studios that the American company Paramount had in the town of Joinville-le-Pont, 40 kilometers southwest of the French capital, devoted to producing films for non-American markets. A few days later, on May 1, he achieved his goal and signed a contract that included him in a musical feature film starring the figures of the revue company of the Teatro Sarmiento of Buenos Aires, owned by Augusto Álvarez and headed by Manuel Romero and Luis Bayón Herrera. The film was finished by the end of the month and was called Las luces de Buenos Aires.^[101]

The director was the Chilean Adelqui Millar and the screenwriters Manuel Romero and Luis Bayón Herrera. The main actors were Gardel, in the leading role of the rancher Anselmo Torres, and Sofía Bozán, his girlfriend, who is about to be corrupted by a Buenos Aires impresario, as is her friend played by Gloria Guzmán, and who ends up being rescued by the gauchos, who return her to the rancher (Gardel). The cast was completed by Vicente Padula, Pedro Quartucci and Carlos Baeza, among others.^[101]

The film includes song and dance scenes (tango, malambo and other folk dances). To compose the music Gerardo Matos Rodríguez, the author of «La cumparsita», was hired, and to perform it Julio de Caro (violin), his brother Francisco de Caro (piano) and Pedro Laurenz (bandoneon). Gardel sings two songs, a tango of his own titled «Tomo y obligo», with lyrics by Romero, which he sings in a cantina in La Boca in a famous scene that drove audiences wild, and the waltz «El rosal» by Matos Rodríguez and Romero, the romantic theme with which the film closes while Gardel kisses his girlfriend (Bozán). Bozán also sings two songs, while Guzmán sings one.^[101]

Las luces de Buenos Aires premiered in Buenos Aires on September 23, 1931. First in the most important cinemas of Buenos Aires and then in neighborhood cinemas and in the rest of the country, with enormous success.^[102] But the most important thing was the reception of the film in the Spanish-speaking countries that had never been able to see Gardel. In Guatemala it was shown for three years, in Madrid every day for three months, and in Barcelona and New York the audience forced the projectionists to rewind the film again and again to hear «Tomo y obligo» once more. In Ecuador the writer Ricardo Descalzi recalled that moment:

It was at this moment that we were struck by the voice and figure of Carlos Gardel in his first film: «Las luces de Buenos Aires», with such an impact on the atmosphere that we immediately began to admire and love him. This film brought us «Tomo y obligo», which the audiences in the cinemas applauded so vehemently that the projectionist was forced to stop the screening to replay it two or three times... From then on the announcement of a Carlos Gardel film packed the theaters, and he became the idol of tango.

— Ricardo Descalzi^[103]

Gardel was beginning to realize the image of the leading-man singer that had been the core of his artistic project from the beginning. His figure had slimmed down and would continue to slim down until he weighed 76 kilos, after having reached 120 kilos.

In August 1931 he returned to Buenos Aires, where he would stay nine weeks. Paradoxically, at the same time as his popularity in Argentina, Uruguay and the whole Spanish-speaking world was beginning to reach proportions never seen before, in the artistic world and media of Buenos Aires a feeling of rejection toward Gardel was growing, because of what was perceived as a loss of contact with his «criollo» roots. On September 15, 1931, his friend, the writer Carlos de la Púa, published in the newspaper Crítica a harsh open letter titled «Che Carlitos, largá la canzoneta»:

Drop those gringo things, which may be very pretty, but which we can't conceive of being sung by you. Don't profane, brother, our own things that gave you glory and dough by alternating them with that Franco-Neapolitan nonsense that doesn't interest us, that we don't feel and that... well (...) Your beloved Buenos Aires, Corrientes Street, the Cortada, the nags, the tango, the milonga, that is your life, your true life, the rest is a sham. Get away from those strange things... and someday you'll thank me for it.

— Carlos de la Púa, 1931.^[104]

Never as in those very brief nine weeks he spent in Buenos Aires did he perceive so strongly the hostility of the Buenos Aires show-business crowd and press.^[105]

On returning to Paris Gardel found the French Paramount in full crisis, in the context of the world depression and of a political climate that was growing tense, a few months before Hitler took power in Germany. With the first half of 1932 having passed without news and when Gardel had already decided to return to Buenos Aires, the company decided to make new films with the Argentine. To that end it appointed the experienced French director Louis Gasnier, settled on a script adapted from another one from the United States, and set the shooting date for September 1932 for a film that would bear the title Espérame, with the subtitle Andanzas de un criollo en España.^[106]

It is at that moment that the presence of Alfredo Le Pera gains importance, with whom Gardel had begun to get along in December of the previous year. Le Pera took on the burden of rewriting, in a very short time, a script full of cultural and geographical incongruities, the product of American stereotypes about the Hispanic American world, and of struggling against the director to bring everyday humanity to the scenes, a role he would repeat in the following films, but which would never leave him satisfied.^[106] But in addition, the meeting of Gardel and Le Pera would give life to a large part of the songs with which his worldwide fame would remain associated.

The musical team organized by Gardel was made up of the brilliant pianist Juan Cruz Mateo, with whom he had already been performing and recording, José Sentis (alias Teruel), one of the Argentines who had established tango in Paris, the French composer Marcel Lattès, who would be murdered by the Nazis in Auschwitz, the Cuban orchestra leader Don Aspiazú, the guitarist Héctor Pettorossi, who had accompanied him years earlier in Juan Moreira, and the composer Mario Battistella, who would become a crucial author for Gardel.^[106]

Despite Le Pera's efforts, the film ultimately could not overcome the weakness of the original script, with mediocre actors who detract from the final result. Gardel plays Carlos Acuña, a singer in love with a young woman (Goyita Herrero) who in turn is being extorted by a rich rancher. In the end the rancher is publicly exposed and the singer ends up with the young woman. Gardel sings four songs, among them the film's main theme, the rumba «Por tus ojos negros», composed by Aspiazú, Le Pera and Carlos Lenzi, the author of «A media luz». The other three songs are «Estudiante», «Me da pena confesarlo» and «Criollita de mis ensueños» by Gardel, Le Pera and Battistella.^[106]

Paramount realized that it was necessary to surround Gardel with a cast of higher artistic level and that Le Pera had to be given more freedom as screenwriter. However —as would happen with all of Gardel's films for Paramount—, the decisions of the director and of those in charge of editing would limit Le Pera's efforts to build films with human depth and would reinstate the stereotypes.^[107] None of that, in any case, would prevent Gardel's films from achieving a deep place in the soul of the Spanish-speaking peoples.

As soon as the shooting of Espérame was finished, Paramount called on the famous Argentine-Spanish actress Imperio Argentina to take on the next film. In October 1932 Gardel and Imperio Argentina made a picaresque short film, with some dialogue daring for the time, titled La casa es seria, directed by Jaquelux (Lucien Jaquelux).^[108] In the short Gardel sings two songs he composed with Le Pera, the tango «Recuerdo malevo» and «Quiéreme». In 1940, when Paris was occupied, the film was destroyed by German troops. However, some Vitaphone discs that had been recorded survived, recording all the dialogue and songs of the film.^[109]

Immediately afterward the shooting of Melodía de arrabal began, again directed by Gasnier and with a script by Le Pera, which would include fundamental songs of Gardel's songbook, such as the tango «Melodía de arrabal» («Barrio plateado por la luna, rumores de milonga»), by Gardel, Le Pera and Battistella, and «Silencio», by Gardel, Le Pera and Pettorossi. The film is a crime story designed by Le Pera, in which Gardel plays a tango singer (Ramírez) in a cantina in La Boca, who under another name is also a professional card player. His girlfriend is Imperio Argentina. In a fight Ramírez kills a thug and disposes of the body with an ingenious ruse using a match. The police chief in charge of the investigation discovers that Ramírez is the same man who had saved his life years before and in the last scene gives him back the match. Gardel also sings «Cuando tú no estás» and «Mañanita de sol», the latter as a duet with Imperio Argentina, the only woman with whom he sang.

Gardel returned to Buenos Aires on December 30, before the films were released. Melodía de arrabal premiered on April 5, 1933,^[110] La casa es seria on May 19,^[111] and Espérame on October 5.^[112] As was to be expected, Melodía de arrabal was better received than Espérame, and within three months it had already surpassed the box-office success achieved by Las luces de Buenos Aires.^[113]

Gardel was rapidly consolidating his position as the leading star of Spanish-language talking pictures. So it seemed at the end of 1932.^[114]

In 1933 his relationship with Razzano finally broke down over financial differences, aggravated by the disorder in his accounts and his debts. He then appointed as his manager Armando Defino, one of his friends from the Café de los Angelitos crowd, from before he was famous. That year he concentrated his performances in the interior of Argentina (Rosario, Santa Fe, Paraná, Arrecifes, San Pedro, Azul, Olavarría, Mendoza, San Juan, Córdoba, Villa María, among other cities), sang on the radio to an unprecedented audience, took part in Buenos Aires in the revue De Gabino a Gardel, and recorded several records released under the title Gardel canta a Gardel, in which, using a novel technology, he sings a duet with himself.

In September he met on the radio Hugo Mariani, a Uruguayan who had been living for years in New York, where he had created and directed the Symphony Orchestra of the National Broadcasting Corporation (NBC), which even had a program called El tango romántico. The two immediately hit it off and Mariani proposed that he go to New York to sing on NBC. A few days later the contract arrived.

On the night of November 7, 1933, Gardel left for Europe on the ship Conte Biancamano, before going to the United States. That morning Defino, his manager, had asked him to draw up a holographic will, that is, one written in his own hand. That was Gardel's last day in Buenos Aires.

The American films

On November 7 he set out on tour again: it was the last time he was in Argentina. First he went to Barcelona and Paris, and then traveled, accompanied by the talented pianist Alberto Castellanos, to the United States, where he debuted on NBC radio in New York on December 30. In his radio performances in New York, Gardel did without his guitarists, with the exception of the broadcast of May 5, 1934, in which he sang from New York, accompanied by the guitars of Barbieri, Vivas and Riverol, who were in Buenos Aires, by means of a link between NBC and LS5 Radio Rivadavia of Buenos Aires, unprecedented in the history of radio broadcasting.^[115]

At NBC, Gardel sang accompanied by the outstanding orchestra of the New York radio, conducted by Hugo Mariani, with the Argentine musician Terig Tucci, who had been settled in the United States for years, acting as arranger, who gave him a new sound based on novel harmonies. Tucci and Castellanos got along immediately and it was they who suggested to Gardel a major change in his singing: that he extend the range of his voice toward the lower tones, to reach a high baritone.^[116] It is with that voice that Gardel would record his last and most celebrated songs. Gardel went through a period of adaptation to the orchestra and to Tucci's new harmonies, but when the time came to form the team of musicians who would accompany him in his American films, he took Tucci as musical arranger and conductor.

Gardel's broadcasts were extremely well received by the large Latino community of New York, which at that time numbered some 500,000 people, at a time when the population of Latino origin in the United States was very small.^[117]

Gardel called Le Pera to New York to act as his representative in the negotiations with Paramount, at a time when the United States was suffering the Great Depression of the 1930s. The contract was signed on March 20, 1934, agreeing to create a production company subsidiary of the American film giant under the name Éxito Corporation, whose sole shareholder was the Argentine singer.^[118] Initially two films would be made that same year: Cuesta abajo and El tango en Broadway.

Cuesta abajo had to be shot in two weeks, with a script written by Le Pera, based on his own autobiographical experience. Gardel and Le Pera were clear that they were not going to repeat the European imposition that the characters had to dress as gauchos. The director was once again the Frenchman Louis Gasnier, imposed by Paramount. Finding actors who spoke Spanish was one of the great production problems. For the main roles they hired Mona Maris, an Argentine who had lived in Europe since early childhood, Vicente Padula, Manuel Peluffo and Anita del Campillo. For the secondary roles Gardel persuaded the diplomats of Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Venezuela and Peru to act in his film.^[119]

The plot concerns a tango singer (Gardel as Carlos Acosta), who leaves his girlfriend (Anita del Campillo) after falling in love with a prostitute (Mona Maris). At the climax of the film Gardel duels with the cafisho (pimp) (Manuel Peluffo) and tries to kill her, in a celebrated scene in which he sings "Cuesta abajo" ("si arrastré por este mundo, la vergüenza de haber sido y el dolor de ya no ser..."), by Gardel and Le Pera.

In the film's main songs ("Cuesta abajo", "Mi Buenos Aires querido", "Amores de estudiante" and "Criollita decí que sí"), Gardel is accompanied by a remarkable quintet led by Alberto Castellanos on piano, together with Remo Bolognini and Hugo Mariani as first and second violin, Washington Castro on cello and Humberto Di Tata on double bass.

Gardel, Le Pera and Castellanos were not entirely satisfied with the film, above all because in the editing process Gasnier and the Paramount technicians removed many of the funniest and liveliest scenes. Despite this the film was a triumphant success, both in the United States and in Latin America. In New York thousands of people overflowed the cinema, filling the streets, to the point that the exhibiting company placed loudspeakers in the street so that the audience that could not get into the theater could hear the songs.^[120]

Paradoxically, only in the Buenos Aires press was criticism raised against the film, especially among the upper class. While the public overflowed the cinemas and demanded that the songs be repeated, the traditional newspapers La Nación and La Prensa criticized the film for the poor image it gave of Argentina. The lyricist Homero Manzi would also harshly criticize the film, in an article published in the magazine Antena, faulting it for lacking "nationalist value".^[120]

El tango en Broadway was shot between the end of June and the third week of July 1934, and the director was once again Louis Gasnier. On this occasion Gardel and Le Pera sought to make a comedy of errors that would change the tone of the previous films and at the same time reflect the situation of Latino artists in the United States.

Once again they had trouble finding actors and actresses who spoke Spanish. The main roles were played by the Spaniard Jaime Devesa (the uncle), a real find, once again the Argentine Vicente Padula, the Guatemalan Blanca Visher (Laurita) and the Mexican Trini Ramos (Celia). Gardel plays Carlos Bazán, an agent for Latino artists.^[121]

The plot concerns a group of Latino artists in New York gathered around Gardel, when the uncle arrives, before whom he tries to pass himself off as a businessman. Laurita then poses as Carlos's girlfriend, and his girlfriend, Celia, poses as his secretary, giving rise to a series of mix-ups. Carlos realizes that he really loves Laurita in one of the climactic scenes of the film, when he sings the tango "Soledad" ("En la doliente sombra de mi cuarto al esperar, sus pasos que quizás no volverán...").

The songs Gardel performs in the film are "Soledad", the foxtrot "Rubias de New York", "Golondrinas" and "Caminito soleado". In the first three he was accompanied by Terig Tucci's orchestra and in the last by Castellano's piano with the guitars of Cáceres, Ayala and Cornejo.^[121]

Once again, Gardel and Le Pera were not fully satisfied with the film and decided to do without Gasnier in the following ones. This did not prevent the film from again being an enormous success, consolidating the Gardelmania that was taking shape in the American Latino community and in the Hispanic American countries.^[122]

After going to France for a short time, at the end of 1934 he returned to New York, performing on NBC and filming the musical Cazadores de estrellas (its original title is The Big Broadcast of 1936), a catalog of Paramount's musical stars, among whom were Bing Crosby, Richard Tauber, the Ray Noble Orchestra with Glenn Miller on trombone, and the Vienna Boys' Choir, among other great figures. In this film Gardel worked with Celia Villa, daughter of the famous Mexican revolutionary Pancho Villa, whom Gardel admired.^[123]

He sang two of his songs with Le Pera: a country piece, "Apure delantero buey", and "Amargura" in a bilingual Spanish-English version titled "Cheating muchachita". The film was released shortly after Gardel's death and for that reason Paramount decided to remove the fragments in which he appeared. The cut sections in which the King of Tango appears are very hard to find, although it is known that some copies of them are in the hands of private collectors.^[124]

Enthusiastic about the success of Gardel's films, Paramount decided to shoot two more films in 1935, which would be his last films. Gardel and Le Pera had already decided that their period of work with Gasnier was exhausted and chose John Reinhardt, a young director of Austrian origin, who had directed several films with Latino actors and who proved much more receptive to Gardel and Le Pera's suggestions.^[125] Two central features stand out in these last two films: the first is the decision to record Gardel's singing live, eliminating the traditional dubbing in post-production; the second is the decision to direct the tone of the films toward the public of the Spanish-speaking countries, moving away both from the Buenos Aires-centric tone and from European-North American stereotypes.^[126]

El día que me quieras was shot in January 1935, with Reinhardt as director and Le Pera as scriptwriter, after the failure of the scripts that Paramount commissioned from Argentine and Hispanic American authors seeking to raise the level.^[125]

The quality of the actors selected also improved. In the main roles accompanying Gardel (Julio Argüelles) were the Spanish actress Rosita Moreno (who plays Margarita and her daughter Marga), Tito Lusiardo (Rocamora), Fernando Adelantado (Carlos Argüelles) and Mario Peluffo (Saturnino). Also appearing in a brief scene, at Gardel's request, was the boy Ástor Piazzolla.

In the script, Gardel is the son of a multimillionaire, rejected by his father for devoting himself to singing and for having taken up with an artist (Rosita Moreno as Margarita), to whom he declares his love with the song El día que me quieras. Reduced to poverty, Margarita falls gravely ill and Gardel is forced to steal from his father to survive. Despite this Margarita dies in a historic scene in which Gardel sings Sus ojos se cerraron, which, because of the degree of emotion his performance reached, left the studio in silence for several minutes before it burst into applause. Gardel is then left alone caring for his daughter, Marga. The story resumes years later, when Gardel and his daughter have become successful artists. Repeating her mother's story, Marga falls in love with a young Argentine, whose millionaire father opposes the relationship ("I find her vulgar and too free"). They all coincide on the voyage back to Buenos Aires where, in another famous scene, leaning on the ship's railing, Gardel sings the tango Volver ("Volver con la frente marchita, las nieves del tiempo platearon mi sien"). Finally, Gardel reveals that he is the heir of the company where he works, which leads the young man's father to cynically change his mind and authorize the marriage. In the last scene Gardel, embracing his daughter and his future son-in-law, at night and looking at the sea, sings the second part of El día que me quieras.^[127]

Le Pera again complained about the post-production cuts, but the film had clearly gained in quality compared to the previous ones. The film was released a few days after Gardel's death. In a letter written to his manager Defino four days before he died, Gardel tells him:

The news you sent about El día que me quieras gave me great pleasure. I saw the film here in Bogotá, privately, and Paramount is crazy about the film. Just think, they are going to release it in 5 theaters at the same time, in a city where there are barely 15 cinemas!... The film once again made an unbeatable impression on me and I still believe it is my best film work and that we really nailed it with the songs. I'm glad about the news that it opens in July and I hope I will arrive in Buenos Aires with the laurels still fresh.

— Carlos Gardel^[128]

Tango Bar, Gardel's last film, was shot in February 1935. Reinhardt was again the director and Le Pera the scriptwriter. The production continued to improve the level of acting, bringing in the excellent Argentine actor Enrique de Rosas, who joined Rosita Moreno, Tito Luisardo, Fernando Adelantado and Manuel Peluffo. The plot is a romantic crime story, revolving around a horse-racing gambler (Gardel) who opens a tango bar in Barcelona and a jewel thief (Rosita Moreno), who ends up being blackmailed. Among the songs, the Gardel-Le Pera partnership composed for the film the hits Por una cabeza and Arrabal amargo.

With the shooting finished and amid the success with which his art and his charm were recognized, Gardel began preparing a tour of several Latin American countries.

Gardelmania and the Latin American tour

Gardel's American films ended up consolidating a phenomenon of popular idolatry among the Spanish-speaking public that was completely unusual for the time.

Then came Espérame, La casa es seria, Melodía de arrabal, Cuesta abajo and El tango en Broadway, which gave rise to "Gardelmania". Men combed their hair à la Gardel, wore their hats tilted to one side like him, and some even used "vos" and "che". Everyone wanted to learn to dance tango.

— Arturo Yépez^[122]

Gardelmania also produced the strange encounter between Gardel and Ástor Piazzolla, the two greatest figures in the history of tango, when the latter was only twelve years old. Piazzolla's father was an Argentine immigrant in the United States, who worked as a barber in Manhattan. When he learned that Gardel had settled in New York, Piazzolla senior carved a figure especially for Gardel and sent his son to deliver it to him. The mischief of the boy, who called Gardel Charlie and knew how to play the bandoneon, won Gardel's immediate liking, and an unusual friendship was established between the two, in which Ástor often acted as translator. As a result, Gardel invited the boy Piazzolla to appear as a canillita (newsboy) in El día que me quieras and later went further, inviting him to join the entourage that would accompany him on his Latin American tour, but his father thought he was still too young for it. As if it were a film script, that refusal by his father meant that Ástor was not in the plane crash and decades later became the great renewer of Argentine tango.^[129]^[130]

In 1978 Ástor Piazzolla wrote an imaginary letter to Gardel:

Dear Charlie:...
I will never forget the night you threw an asado at the end of the shooting of El día que me quieras. It was an honor for the Argentines and Uruguayans living in New York. I remember that Alberto Castellano was supposed to play the piano and I the bandoneon, of course to accompany you singing. I had the crazy luck that the piano was so bad that I had to play alone and you sang the songs from the film. What a night, Charlie! That was my baptism with tango. The first tango of my life, and accompanying Gardel! I will never forget it. Shortly afterward you left with Lepera and your guitarists for Hollywood. Do you remember that you sent me two telegrams asking me to join you with my bandoneon? It was the spring of '35 and I was turning 14. My parents didn't give me permission and neither did the union. Charlie, I was saved! Instead of playing the bandoneon I would be playing the harp.
..

— Ástor Piazzolla^[131]

At midnight on March 28, 1935, Gardel left New York on the yacht Coamo to begin his Latin American tour through Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Aruba, Curaçao, Colombia, Panama, Cuba and Mexico. He was accompanied by Le Pera, his guitarists Barbieri, Aguilar and Riverol, the Argentine boxer José Corpas Moreno as his secretary, and the Spaniard José Plaja, his English teacher. In Puerto Rico the Puerto Rican Alfonso Azzaf would join the group as masseur and lighting manager.

Gardel arrived in Puerto Rico on April 1 at 5 in the morning. More than forty thousand people were waiting for him at the port, surprising an entourage that was only just beginning to grasp the scale of the popular idolatry the Argentine actor had unleashed among the Latino public. He had been hired for one week, but the popular demand was of such magnitude that he postponed his arrival in Venezuela in order to perform for two more weeks. He sang at the Paramount theaters in the capital, the Yaguez in Mayagüez and the Broadway in Ponce, as well as in the cities of Yauco, Manatí, Río Piedras, Cayey, Guayama, Cataño and Arecibo.^[122]^[132]

Gardel won over the Puerto Ricans with his charm and simplicity. The car dealerships, eager for publicity, fought to provide Gardel with one of their automobiles, but the singer preferred to walk with "his people". On several occasions, seeing that many people had been left unable to get into his performances, he sang to them from the town square. He even went so far as to ask Rafael Ramos Cobián, the impresario who had brought him to the island, to lower the ticket prices "because he wanted to be within everyone's reach", and that, to the detriment of his own pocket.

— Arturo Yépez^[122]

On April 25 he arrived in Venezuela, on the motor ship "Lara". Another crowd awaited them at the docks of La Guaira and from there they went by train to the Caño Amarillo station in Caracas. The popular pressure on the idol was of such magnitude that it greatly delayed his arrival. Thousands of women, especially teenage girls, tried to hug and pinch him, and even the top of the car in which he was riding was torn apart by people trying to see him, triggering a police crackdown in which Le Pera received a saber blow to the face. Today at that spot, a statue of Gardel and two guitarists, by the artist Marisol Escobar, commemorates the Venezuelan people's reception of the Argentine.^[133] He stayed in Venezuela twelve days, performing at the Principal and Rialto theaters, as well as at the Hotel Majestic and on Radio Caracas. He also sang in Valencia, in the oil town of Cabimas, where the audience wrecked the circus in which he performed demanding that he sing more songs, before President Juan Vicente Gómez at his residence in Maracay and finally in Maracaibo.^[134]^[135]

On May 23 Gardel arrived in Curaçao, where he performed for five nights. There he donated to the group of Venezuelan exiles the sum of ten thousand bolívares that President Gómez had given him.^[134]

On May 28 he arrived by ship in Aruba.^[136] In Aruba, the audience took him off the stage and carried him on their shoulders throughout the town. In that situation Gardel managed to persuade the people to take him to the port jetty, where he boarded the plane that would take him back to Curaçao.^[135]^[137]

On June 2 Gardel arrived in Colombia, landing at Puerto Colombia, which at that time was the maritime terminal of Barranquilla. The Bogotá newspaper El Tiempo, announcing the arrival of the "Jilguero de las Pampas" (Goldfinch of the Pampas), said that "the arrival of the Argentine singer has saturated Barranquilla, which is living to the rhythm of tango".^[138] Once again popular affection was expressed in crowds that followed him everywhere, to hug and kiss him, with scenes of collective frenzy that once more required the intervention of the police. In Bogotá more than ten people invaded the runway at the moment of landing.

From Bogotá, Barbieri wrote to his wife telling her what was happening:

The reception was something never seen before; at the airfield there were thousands of people cheering Carlos and Argentina; in the theater you couldn't fit a pin, the President of the Republic attended; you can't imagine, old girl, the affection there is for Carlos and the admiration; there is no artist who is liked more than him in the Latin countries; it is something legendary that I'll tell you about...

— Guillermo Barbieri^[139]

In Medellín, one of the impresarios had tried to apologize for the inconvenience caused by the popular effusiveness:

- Impresario: How unpleasant it must be for an artist to have to put up with all this.
- Carlos Gardel: It is not so. I feel happy and satisfied with the homage of the people, because it is my people who suffer and laugh with me and applaud me, the people who have built my pedestal, my prestige and my glory.^[140]

He performed in the Colombian cities of Barranquilla, Cartagena, Medellín and Bogotá. On Sunday, June 23, he sang on the radio station La voz de la Victor, before an immense audience that filled the studios and the Plaza Bolívar, where the station placed loudspeakers. Among other songs he sang the tangos "Cuesta Abajo", "Insomnio", "El Carretero", "No te engañes corazón", closing with "Tomo y obligo". It was his last performance.^[138] Before closing he had said goodbye with these words:

Before singing my last song, I want to say that I have felt great emotions in Colombia. Thank you for so much kindness. I find in the smiles of the children, the glances of the women and the goodness of the Colombians a loving affection for me. I leave with the impression of remaining inside the hearts of the people of Bogotá. I am going to see my old lady soon. I don't know if I will come back, because man proposes and God disposes. But such is the charm of this land that received me and bids me farewell as if I were its own son, that I cannot say goodbye to you, only until always.

— Carlos Gardel^[141]

The next day, June 24, Gardel and his companions were to continue the tour in Cali. For that purpose they took a plane piloted by Stanley Harvey, which flew first to Medellín, so that the celebrated aviator Ernesto Samper Mendoza, owner of the Saco company, could take command of the flight. At the moment of taking off from the Medellín airport, the plane suffered the accident that cost the lives of Gardel and his companions, with the exception of Aguilar and Plaja.

Plane crash and death

On June 24, 1935, Carlos Gardel, together with Alfredo Le Pera, his guitarist Guillermo Barbieri and his secretary Corpas Moreno, died in the collision of two planes at the moment of takeoff, on the runway of the Olaya Herrera Airport, then known as the "Las Playas" Aerodrome, in the city of Medellín (Colombia). Days later Alfonso Azzaf and the guitarist Ángel Domingo Riverol would also die. Also killed in the accident were the Colombian aviation ace and owner of SACO, Ernesto Samper Mendoza, the radio operator Willis Foster, the Chilean businessman Celedonio Palacios, the show promoter Henry Swartz, as well as the seven occupants of the other plane. In total, 17 dead. There were only three survivors: the guitarist José María Aguilar, José Plaja and Grant Flynt, an employee of SACO.

The accident occurred when the plane in which Gardel was traveling, a Ford trimotor of the SACO company, veered off course in the middle of its takeoff run and rammed another similar plane belonging to the German-origin company SCADTA, which was waiting its turn to take off, both of them catching fire.

The causes of the accident were never clearly established. The two airline companies were engaged in fierce competition, behind which lay the strategic-military interests of the United States and Germany. As soon as the accident occurred, each of the companies hastened to blame the other. The President of Colombia himself harshly blamed the German company. The courts, for their part, determined that the causes of the accident were due to the characteristics of the runway and a strong wind coming from the southeast.^[142]

Gardel was first buried in Medellín, but later Armando Defino ―his executor― achieved the repatriation of the body. To that end, the coffin containing the mortal remains of Carlos Gardel had to make a long journey that included travel on donkey-back, by cart, train and ship. His body passed through the towns of the Colombian interior, then went to Panama, lay in state in the United States, and finally arrived in Argentina by ship around 1936.^[143] After a massive funeral at the Luna Park stadium, he was carried along Corrientes Avenue to the Chacarita Cemetery, where he rests in a vault together with his mother.

The guitarists of Gardel

First Gardel and Razzano, and later Gardel as a soloist, were characterized by their exclusive accompaniment by guitars.^[144] ^[145] ^[146] Guitar accompaniment was unusual in tango, since although the guitar was never entirely excluded from tango orchestration, its weight fell centrally on the bandoneon, and secondarily on the piano and the violin, the instruments that made up the so-called "orquesta típica de tango." Gardel's guitars did not come from the world of tango, but from the world of country music and the payada, from which the duo came.^[147] The use of guitar accompaniment and the quality of the guitarists chosen have given rise to frequent aesthetic debates.^[144]

Initially Gardel and Razzano accompanied themselves with borrowed guitars, but as they consolidated themselves professionally, they turned to hiring expert guitarists. The first was José Ricardo, El Negro José, an Afro-Argentine musician born in the Balvanera neighborhood of Buenos Aires, who was hired in 1916 and remained until May 1929. In 1921 the duo hired the Argentine Guillermo Barbieri as guitarist, who took on the role of second guitar until Ricardo's retirement. In 1928, Gardel hired the Uruguayan José María Aguilar, El Indio, who served until December 1930, when he was dismissed by Gardel for a homophobic remark against him,^[100] rejoining in 1935. In March 1930 Gardel hired Ángel Domingo Riverol, who would accompany him from then on. Between September 1931 and November 1933 Julio Vivas was part of the group of guitarists, and during this last year Horacio Pettorossi also joined, forming a brilliant quartet with Barbieri, Riverol and Vivas.^[146]^[145]

Gardel's guitarists were accomplished musicians, and Gardel recorded many songs composed by them, some of which became classics, in addition to introducing guitar solos so that they could shine,^[146] gestures that were highly valued by the musicians themselves and by critics, because of the artistic and economic significance of that conduct.

Ricardo composed 11 songs recorded by Gardel,^[144] among them "Margot" (music together with Gardel), "Pobre gallo bataraz" and "Resignate hermano" (with Barbieri).^[146]

Barbieri composed 32 tangos recorded by Gardel,^[144] among them: Anclao en París, "Viejo smocking", "Incurable", "Mar bravío", "Quién tuviera 18 años", "El que atrasó el reloj", "Pordioseros", "Idilio campero", "Cruz de palo", "Pobre amigo", "La novia ausente", "Preparate p’al domingo", "Resignate hermano" (with Ricardo), "Besos que matan", "Barrio viejo", "Cariñito", "Viejo curda" and "Olvidao".^[146]

Aguilar composed 11 tangos recorded by Gardel,^[144] among which stand out "Al mundo le falta un tornillo" (with lyrics by Cadícamo), "Tengo miedo", "Lloró como una mujer" and "Milonguera".^[146]

Among the songs by Vivas, alone or as co-author, recorded by Gardel, stand out "El Olivo", "Salto Mortal", "Quejas del Alma" and "Amante, Corazón".^[144]

Pettorossi was the composer of celebrated Gardel tangos, such as "Silencio" (co-written with Gardel and Le Pera), "Angustia", "Esclavas blancas" and "Lo han visto con otra".^[146]

Riverol composed 3 tangos recorded by Gardel,^[144] among them "Falsas promesas" and "Trovas".^[146]

Barbieri, Riverol and Aguilar accompanied Gardel on the flight that caused his death. Barbieri died instantly, Riverol died two days later, and Aguilar was the only survivor of the accident, suffering extremely serious injuries.

Personal relationships

Gardel and his friends. Photo taken on November 5, 1933, at the tribute and farewell party organized for him by his friend Francisco Maschio, ahead of the world tour he would begin two days later. Gardel would never return to Buenos Aires. To his left is his friend the jockey Irineo Leguisamo and to his right the jockey Alfredo Pelufo. The orchestra is that of Edgardo Donato.^[148]

The main personal relationship of Gardel's life was with his mother, the French immigrant Marie Berthe Gardes, or Berta Gardés in the Castilianized version, who according to the French hypothesis was his biological mother and according to the Uruguayan hypothesis acted as his adoptive mother. Gardel lived his whole life with his mother, although for some time when he was a teenager it appears that he ran away from home. On the other hand, Gardel always expressed devotion to his mother, although some ambivalent aspects of the relationship point to complex facets that have not been fully revealed.^[149] When Gardel became a well-paid artist, he provided Berta with the money needed to visit her mother,^[150] brother and other French relatives in Toulouse every year, whom he also visited, although notably they never traveled together.^[151] Berta was in fact in Toulouse at the time of her son's death.^[152] When Carlos died, it was Berta who inherited all of her son's property, including the house he had bought for both of them in the Abasto neighborhood, at Jean Jaurés Street 735.

Gardel was an extroverted and likable person,^[153] who tended to establish strong friendships, although, as often happens with people of fame and fortune, these were not always truly reciprocated. Among his most important friends, his relationship with José Razzano stands out, maintained according to Razzano from 1911 until Gardel's death, although in the last years it weakened for financial reasons.^[154]^[39] Other good friends were Edmundo Guibourg, whom he had known since childhood, but with whom he became friends in 1915;^[153]^[155] the jockey Irineo Leguizamo, to whom Gardel would dedicate the tango "Leguisamo solo", composed by Modesto Papavero;^[156] Francisco Maschio, a racehorse trainer with whom Gardel shared his passion for the "burros," as he said in lunfardo; and the actors Elías Alippi and César Ratti.^[157]

His manager until 1932 was his friend and partner José Razzano. In that year they drifted apart and Gardel appointed Armando Defino. When Gardel died, Defino and his wife Adela Blasco became Berta's spiritual support, even living together in the Abasto house. Berta, who died in 1943, bequeathed all her property to Defino, who in turn did the same with his wife when he died in 1958. Adela lived until 1984 and died without forced heirs, bequeathing all her property to Nuria de Fortuny.^[158]

With regard to his romantic relationships, Gardel was extremely reserved about them, never publicly disclosing any relationship.^[159]

Gardel's reserve about his intimate life has given rise to various and contradictory rumors and studies about the nature of his emotional and sexual relationships.^[159]^[160]^[161]^[162]^[163] In his private correspondence there is ample evidence concerning Isabel del Valle, a 13-year-old girl with whom Gardel became involved in 1920 and with whom he maintained an ambiguous bond until 1933.^[164]^[165]

On the other hand, there is unanimity on the fact that Gardel had no children.

Betting and games of chance

Betting on horse races was Gardel's great passion, and it was forcefully reflected in his songbook in what have come to be called "tangos burreros," taking the lunfardo expression "burros" to refer to the turf.^[166]

Many of his friends belonged to the world of horse racing, such as the famous jockey Irineo Leguisamo, the Tortercio brothers, the trainer Francisco Maschio and the jockey Alfredo Peluffo.^[167] Gardel owned eight racehorses: Lunático (his favorite, ridden by Leguisamo and trained by Maschio), La Pastora, Cancionero, Amargura, Theresa, Guitarrista, Explotó and Mocoroa, the last two co-owned with Leguisamo and Mascchio.^[157]

Among the "tangos burreros" of Gardel's repertoire, the following stand out: "Por una cabeza", written by him with lyrics by Alfredo Le Pera in 1935, the only one he composed in this thematic series; and "Leguisamo solo" by Modesto Papavero, in homage to his friend, in which Gardel, while performing it, mentions his friends Francisco Maschio and El Pulpo Leguisamo, and his horse Lunático:^[168]

-Gardel: Well, old Francisco, tell the Pulpo that I'm going to retire Lunático to winter quarters... He has already earned his keep, and the gang is completely grateful. Listen to the gang:
-Ricardo and Barbieri: Very good!
-Gardel: Salute!

— "Leguisamo solo", recording of September 23, 1927.

Other "burrero" tangos in Gardel's songbook are "Palermo" by Enrique Pedro Delfino, Juan Villalba and Hermido Braga; "La catedrática" (Soy una fiera), by his former partner Francisco Martino; "Uno y uno", by Traverso and Pollero; "Paquetín, paquetón" by Carlos Dedico, Germán Ziclis and Salvador Merico; "Bajo Belgrano" by Francisco García Jiménez and Anselmo Aieta; and "Preparate pa´l domingo", by his guitarist Guillermo Barbieri and José Rial (Jr.).^[157] Guillermo Barbieri and Eugenio Cárdenas composed the tango "Lunático", which Gardel recorded for the Records label, and in 1935 the film of the same name was released.^[168]

Gardel and sports

Gardel was also fond of other sports, such as football: he was a member of Racing Club.^[169] In the City of Rosario, he visited the stadium of Club Atlético Newell's Old Boys. One of his football tangos is "Patadura". He also enjoyed boxing.^[170] In addition to his fondness for these sports, he regularly played Basque pelota and bochas, went jogging and attended gymnastics classes.^[171]

His singing

File:Fileteado Elvio Gervasi Gardel.jpg

Pasaje Carlos Gardel, in the Abasto neighborhood (Buenos Aires). It is a section of the old Guardia Vieja street, where, in 1911, Carlos Gardel and José Razzano met for the first time.

In 1915, the Italian tenor Enrico Caruso came to Argentina to sing at the Teatro Colón, and on his return by ship to Brazil it so happened that Carlos Gardel was aboard, being a friend of many of the professors of the Orquesta Estable. Some of them persuaded him to meet the famous Italian. He did so, and once Caruso had heard him sing a tango, a zamba and a cueca, the Italian remarked to him: "If you had studied seriously, you would be the best baritone in the world." In time, Carlos Gardel did indeed choose as his teacher the prestigious professor Alberto Castellanos, who changed his register from tenor to baritone. That is why in Gardel's early records his singing is perceived in a higher pitch, while in the later ones he sounds more comfortable in the appropriate register.^[172]

His voice evolved, adjusting his diction to the changes in acoustic recording systems. Maestro Eduardo Bonessi, who was Gardel's singing teacher, said around 1963:

It was of extraordinary quality and of a marvelous timbre for tango. He had a brilliant baritone register and never sang out of tune. As for his tessitura, his range reached «two octaves», which he handled to full satisfaction. That is a good range for a popular singer. Gardel possessed a great temperament ―expressive to the utmost― and was naturally endowed with an instrument in his throat. An instrument that he later perfected and knew how to preserve. He was a man who knew his worth, who did not squander his voice as many suppose. He had a completely healthy larynx, and that was one of the reasons why he found it easy to move from low notes to high notes and vice versa... He was studious and responsible. He knew himself to be unique in the genre and took care of his voice. Aware that the voice is also cared for through physical care, he did gymnastics daily for an hour or more... Given the voice he had and the way he used it, had Gardel lived to be a hundred, he would have gone on singing just the same.

— Eduardo Bonessi^[173]

In his book Carlos Gardel: a la luz de la Historia,^[174] published by the Fundación BankBoston, Montevideo, 2000, the architect Nelson Bayardo, who for more than thirty years researched his life and origins, describes his voice by highlighting five aspects:

File:Fileteado Gardel Martiniano Arce.jpg

"Carlos Gardel, the heart of tango," by the fileteado artist Martiniano Arce (2006).

An innate musical sense that allowed him to venture effortlessly into more than 30 different musical genres.
An exceptional vocal timbre, which changed from tenor at the beginning to approach baritone at the end of his life, even when he sang the second part in duet with Razzano, which later allowed him to record the unforgettable duets with himself, in which he sang both parts.
An unequaled versatility, thanks to which he could perform a wide range of styles, whether dramatic or comic, sentimental or ironic, evocative or grotesque. Each time, as Ayestarán (a Uruguayan musicologist) used to say, similar yet different at the same time. The lively Gardel in "Te fuiste, ¡jajá!" does not resemble the anguished voice of "Mi noche triste," two songs with identical content, a man abandoned by his wife, but in which the sound of the first two words (Te fuiste and Percanta) is enough for the listener to immediately guess the cheerful or sad tone of each song.
A boundless creativity, which he was able to use simply because he was the one who had invented the tango-canción, and was therefore the only person who could determine its style. He used various devices, including short speeches before or during his songs, laughter, coughs and interruptions; the classic "jmmm" that he scattered throughout his songs; spontaneous silences bordering on the dramatic, as in Anoche a las dos (a song that, were it not Gardel singing it, would be immediately forgettable), in which he adapts his voice to sing the lines of the betrayed husband, an attentive customer in a café and a police officer: something that, without his original way of performing an art so much his own, would have bordered on the ridiculous, like other pieces that at times were simply not good enough for the singer.
Finally, his expressiveness, which, according to the famous Rubén Pesce, made him a "tango actor." Casto Canel said in this regard that "he escapes from the mechanical rules of meter, arriving early, late or out of time, shortening or lengthening a phrase; at times a rigorous refinement can be heard, or a powerful and suffocating silence; with a single word he can create a deeper musical experience than that attainable by pure arithmetical patterns."

With respect to the "N" that Gardel pronounced as an "R," the Argentine singer Edmundo Rivero, in a book devoted exclusively to the technical analysis of his singing, gave the following explanation:

It is because the "n" is a liquid consonant and can lose its sonority when it meets a voiceless consonant [a "t" or a "p"], of the kind that obstruct the passage of air (they are occlusives), and when the "n" is pronounced before them, it rests on the nose and ―knowing that in elevated singing this is unaesthetic and frowned upon― Gardel sent the air directly forward (always supported).^[175]

Tribute

Admirers remembering Gardel at his tomb in the Chacarita cemetery in Buenos Aires, in 2012, on the 77th anniversary of his death.

In 1985 the Konex Foundation honored him with the Honorary Konex Award for his incalculable contribution to the history of Argentine popular music.

Carlos Gardel Day

On June 24, 2005, by joint decision of the municipal authorities of the cities of Buenos Aires, Montevideo, Tacuarembó and Medellín (where he died), the 70th anniversary of Carlos Gardel's death was commemorated. For the first time, the commemoration of the so-called Carlos Gardel Day in the French city of Toulouse was omitted.

Tango Day

In Argentina, Tango Day is celebrated every December 11, because Julio de Caro and Carlos Gardel were born on that day.^[176]

Controversies over his birthplace

There are two versions of the birth of Carlos Gardel: one holds that he was born in France and the other that he was born in Uruguay. The first is known as the "French hypothesis" and the second as the "Uruguayan hypothesis." The two also differ on the year of birth and on a large number of facts of his personal life related to his identity, mainly during his childhood and adolescence. But both versions agree on the fact that he became a naturalized Argentine in 1923.

Gardel, for his part, in his public statements, was generally reluctant to answer what his nationality was, and when he did, he tended to express himself ambiguously and without providing details.

French hypothesis

The "French hypothesis" holds that Carlos Gardel was born in Toulouse, France, on December 11, 1890, under the name Charles Romuald Gardes, his biological mother being Marie Berthe Gardes and his father Paul Jean Lasserre, who did not acknowledge him. In 1893 Berthe emigrated to Argentina with her son, settling in Buenos Aires. Its proponents also hold that his name was Castilianized in Argentina as Carlos Romualdo Gardés and that he adopted Carlos Gardel as his stage name, the three names therefore corresponding to one and the same person.

The main documentary evidence for the "French hypothesis" is the birth certificate of Charles Romuald Gardes in Toulouse,^[177]^[178] whose authenticity is not disputed, and Carlos Gardel's holographic will, in which he declares himself to be Charles Romuald Gardes, son of Berthe Gardes, born in Toulouse.^[179]^[180]

The "French hypothesis" holds that Gardel's documents stating that he was born in Tacuarembó, Uruguay, such as the nationality registration processed in 1920,^[181] his identity card and his passports, contain false data supplied by Gardel himself because he had not enlisted in the French forces to do military service, nor to fight for France during World War I. Had Gardel been identified as a French citizen by birth, he would have run the risk of being jailed as a deserter if he traveled to France or to any country that had an extradition treaty with France.^[181]^[182]^[183]^[184]

This current constitutes the traditional biographical position, presented in the first biography of Gardel, written in 1946 by his friend Francisco García Jiménez on the basis of the memoirs of José Razzano.^[185] After the presentation of the "Uruguayan hypothesis" in 1967, authors emerged who devoted themselves to confirming the "French hypothesis," such as the Argentine Augusto Fernández,^[186] the Argentine Carlos Esteban and the French Monique Ruffié and Georges Galopa,^[187]^[188]^[189]^[190]^[191]^[192] the French Christiane Bricheteau,^[193] Raúl Torre and Juan Fenoglio,^[13] Enrique Espina Rawson,^[194] and Norberto Regueira.^[195] Among Gardel's biographers who accept the hypothesis of his birth in Toulouse are the British Simon Collier,^[196] and the Argentines Julián and Osvaldo Barsky,^[197] and Felipe Pigna.^[198]

Uruguayan hypothesis

The "Uruguayan hypothesis" holds that Carlos Gardel was born in Tacuarembó, Uruguay, probably on a December 11, his mother being María Lelia Oliva, made pregnant by the husband of her sister Blanca, Carlos Félix Escayola Medina, military and political chief of Tacuarembó.^[199] The year of birth varies, depending on the author, between 1883, when María Lelia was 13 years old and her sister Blanca was alive, and 1887, when María Lelia was 17 and her sister Blanca had already died.^[200]

The "Uruguayan hypothesis" holds that when the child was born, he was not acknowledged by either of his parents and remained unregistered. Berthe Gardes would have been in Tacuarembó at that time, initially taking charge of the child, but she then traveled back to Toulouse, where in 1890 she had a son not acknowledged by his father, whom she named Charles Romuald Gardes, with whom she emigrated to Argentina, where she once again took charge of Carlos, the Uruguayan child.

A few years later, Gardel's biological parents according to the Uruguayan version, Carlos Escayola and María Lelia Oliva, would formalize their relationship, marrying and having six children, Gardel's siblings.^[201] Gardel, for his part, would always have known his true filiation and would even have met his siblings on several occasions.^[202]

The basis of the "Uruguayan hypothesis" is that Charles Romuald Gardes, Berthe's son born in 1890 in Toulouse, and Carlos Gardel, partly raised by Berthe and born several years earlier in Tacuarembó, were different people, and that Gardel eventually ended up taking on the identity of Charles, Berthe's biological son.

The main documentary evidence for the "Uruguayan hypothesis" consists of the Uruguayan and Argentine documents processed by Gardel in 1920 and 1923, in which Carlos Gardel himself declares that he was born in Tacuarembó on December 11, 1887, identifying his parents as Carlos Gardel and María Gardel.^[203]

The "Uruguayan hypothesis" holds that the content of Gardel's will is false and that it was part of a legal maneuver so that Berthe Gardes could inherit from him in accordance with the Argentine laws of the time. Its proponents have also petitioned the courts, without success, for the exhumation of the remains of Gardel and his mother, in order to carry out studies to establish his genetic identity.^[204]

This current was initiated by the Uruguayan journalist Erasmo Silva Cabrera, alias Avlis, the first to uphold the hypothesis, starting in 1967.^[205]^[206]^[207] Other scholars belonging to the Uruguayan current are the Argentine Blas Matamoro,^[208] the Uruguayan Nelson Bayardo,^[209] the Uruguayan Eduardo Payssé González,^[210] the Argentine Martina Iñíguez,^[211] the Argentine Ricardo Ostuni,^[212] the Uruguayan Nelson Sica dell’Isola,^[213] and the Uruguayan Gonzalo Vázquez Gabor.^[214]

In 1997 Susana Cabrera published the book Los secretos del Coronel, which narrates and documents this hypothesis,^[215] on which the documentary El padre de Gardel (Ricardo Antonio Casas, 2013) was based. It deals with the supposition of incest and the concealment of Gardel's true paternity.

Popular idolatry

Much of the celebrity and passion that Gardel aroused during his life and after his death is due to his concern to cultivate and spread his image. The poet Celedonio Flores writes in the famous tango "Corrientes y Esmeralda", composed in 1933, when Gardel was still alive, that "any cockatoo dreams of having the looks of Carlos Gardel."^[216] In that image, a role of great importance is played by the photographs taken of him by the Hispano-Uruguayan photographer José María Silva, especially the famous portraits of 1933.

The Argentine rock musician Luis Alberto Spinetta reflects the popular idolatry of Gardel in one of his best-known songs, "El anillo del Capitán Beto", in which he describes the cab of a bus driver, where the famous photo of Gardel coexists with the passion for football and religious beliefs.

There goes Captain Beto through space,
the photo of Carlitos on the controls,
a River Plate pennant,
and the sad little holy card of a saint.

— "El anillo del Capitán Beto"
Luis Alberto Spinetta

File:Homenaje a Carlos Gardel a pocos metros de su casa.jpg

Silva's portraits transformed into icons of the popular idolatry of Gardel.

Silva met Gardel almost by chance when, in 1917, the Gardel-Razzano duo, being in Montevideo, decided to have photos taken to spread their image. Thus, walking along 18 de Julio Avenue, the city's main avenue, they entered a photography shop where Silva worked as an employee, still a young man of 20. Gardel was surprised by the quality of Silva's photos, unusual for the time, and from then on he turned to him, once Silva had set up on his own, to have the photos taken with which he would spread his image worldwide.^[217]

After 1917, Gardel had two other major sets of photos taken by Silva: the first in 1923, before leaving on his first tour of Europe, in which he had the well-known photo taken dressed as a gaucho (because on the "old continent" tango was stereotypically associated with the gaucho); and the last in 1933, in which a sequence of portraits of his face was taken, which constitute the famous portraits with which the image of Gardel is universally associated.^[218] Silva never charged a cent for the reproduction rights.^[219]

Silva would say of Gardel:

His smile was the hallmark of his personality, and he had a warmth that won anyone's affection from the very start.^[220]

In 1995, the musicians Eduardo Suárez ("Korneta"), Eli Suárez, Bruno Suárez and Jorge Rossi, natives of the Buenos Aires neighborhood of Bajo Flores, founded the tango-rock band Los Gardelitos, which was named in clear homage to Carlos Gardel. The theme of this band is the fusion of two of the most popular rhythms of Argentine music, namely rock nacional and tango, with lyrics bearing touches that recall the tango slang of Buenos Aires society. "Korneta" Suárez died in 2004 and the leadership of the band was taken over by his son Eli Suárez on vocals and lead guitar, while after continual changes in the names of the original lineup (including Korneta's second son, Bruno, who left the band in 2001), the lineup has been established since 2017 as Yamil Salvador (acoustic guitar and backing vocals), Pablo Fernández (bass) and Jerónimo Sica (drums). Popularly, this band is also often referred to simply as "Gardeles".^[221]

Discography

Gardel made 957 recordings, covering 792 different songs.^[222]

He recorded not only tangos but also folk music, milongas, zambas, rancheras, tonadas, estilos, etc. (thirty genres in total). He recorded some foxtrots, a tango in Spanish and English, and also some traditional songs in French and Italian, and even a tango in Guaraní.^[223]

His own songs

Hits by other composers

Sos mi tirador plateado (1912). The first song recorded by Gardel, which he would record twice more. By Oscar Orozco, a poet from Paysandú.
Brisas de la tarde (1912).
Pobre mi madre querida (1912).
Mi noche triste (1917).
Flor de fango (1917).
Griseta (1924)
Caminito (1926).
Siga el corso (1926)
Isla de Flores (1927). Lyrics by Roman Machado, music by Arturo César Senez.
El taita del arrabal by José Padilla
Tomo y obligo (1931).
Silencio (1933).
Melodía de arrabal (1933).
Desdén (1933).
Amores de estudiante (1934).
Golondrinas (1934).
Cuesta abajo (1934).
Mi Buenos Aires querido (1934).
Soledad (1934).
Volver (1935).
Guitarra guitarra mía (1935).
Por una cabeza (1935).
Sus ojos se cerraron (1935).
Lejana tierra mía (1935).
Volvió una noche (1935).
Novia ausente
Por una cabeza
El día que me quieras (1935).
Déjà (Already); Folie (Madness); Je te dirai (I Will Tell You); Madame c'est vous (Madam, It's You); Parlez moi d'amour (Speak to Me of Love) (all of these in French).
Largue a esa Mujica (1929). Music and lyrics: Juan Sarcione^[224]

Filmography

Flor de durazno (silent film).
- Label: Patria Films
- Director: Francisco Defilipis Novoa
- Filmed in Dolores (Córdoba) and Buenos Aires (1917).

Encuadre de canciones (ten short films).
- The first sound film made in South America, in 1930, using the Movietone system (image and sound recorded at the same time on the film). Because of the type of film (ten filmed songs), Gardel here became a pioneer of what are today called music videos.

Las luces de Buenos Aires
- Label: Paramount
- Director: Adelqui Millar
- Screenplay: Manuel Romero and Luis Bayón Herrera
- Music: Gerardo Matos Rodríguez, with the participation of the orchestra of Julio De Caro
- Filmed in Joinville (France, 1931).
- Gardel performs: "Tomo y obligo" and "El rosal".

Espérame (in the credits it appears as Esperáme; at the time it was subtitled Espérame: andanzas de un criollo en España).
- Label: Paramount
- Director: Luis Gasnier
- Screenplay: Alfredo Le Pera
- Music: Carlos Gardel, Marcel Lattés and Don Aspiazú. With the participation of Aspiazú's Cuban Orchestra and the guitarist Horacio Pettorossi.
- Filmed in Joinville (France, 1932).
- Gardel performs: "Por tus ojos negros", "Me da pena confesarlo", "Criollita de mis ensueños" and "Estudiante".

La casa es seria
- Label: Paramount
- Director: Lucien Jacquelux
- Screenplay: Alfredo Le Pera
- Music: Carlos Gardel and Marcel Lattés
- Filmed in Joinville (France, 1932).
- A lost short film, whose soundtrack survives.
- Gardel performs: "Recuerdo malevo" and "Quiéreme", which was not released on record.

Melodía de arrabal
- Label: Paramount
- Director: Luis Gasnier
- Screenplay: Alfredo Le Pera
- Music: Carlos Gardel, José Sentis, Horacio Pettorossi, Marcel Lattés and Raúl Moretti, with the participation of the orchestra of Juan Cruz Mateo and Horacio Pettorossi.
- Filmed in Joinville (France, 1932).
- Gardel performs: "Melodía de arrabal", "Cuando tú no estás", "Silencio" and "Mañanitas de sol", in duet with Imperio Argentina.

Cuesta abajo
- Label: Paramount
- Director: Luis Gasnier
- Screenplay: Alfredo Le Pera
- Music: Alberto Castellanos
- Filmed in Long Island (New York, 1934).
- Gardel performs: "Amores de estudiante", "Por tu boca roja", "Criollita decí que sí", "Cuesta abajo" and "Mi Buenos Aires querido"

El tango en Broadway
- Label: Paramount
- Director: Luis Gasnier
- Screenplay: Alfredo Le Pera
- Music: Alberto Castellanos
- Filmed in Long Island (New York, 1934).
- Gardel performs: "Rubias de New York", "Golondrinas", "Soledad" and "Caminito soleado".

Cazadores de estrellas
- English title: The big broadcast of 1936.
- Label: Paramount
- Director: Norman Taurog (and Theodore Reed, in Gardel's scenes).
- Filmed in Hollywood (United States, in 1935), except for Gardel's scenes, made in Long Island (New York, on December 15, 1934).
- It is a musical film with several world artists of the moment, among them Bing Crosby, Ethel Merman, George Burns and Ray Noble and his orchestra, with Glenn Miller as a member. Carlos Gardel takes part in two scenes, performing "Apure delantero buey" and "Amargura".

El día que me quieras
- Label: Paramount
- Director: John Reinhardt
- Screenplay: Alfredo Le Pera
- Music: Terig Tucci
- Filmed in Long Island (New York, 1935).
- Gardel performs: "Suerte negra", in a trio with Lusiardo and Peluffo; "Sol tropical"; "El día que me quieras", with a duet ending with Rosita Moreno; "Sus ojos se cerraron", "Guitarra, guitarra mía" and "Volver".

Tango bar
- Label: Paramount
- Director: John Reinhardt
- Screenplay: Alfredo Le Pera
- Music: Terig Tucci
- Filmed in Long Island (New York, 1935).
- Gardel performs: "Por una cabeza", "Los ojos de mi moza", "Lejana tierra mía" and "Arrabal amargo".

References

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 See the Uruguayan hypothesis.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 See the French hypothesis.
↑ "El Tango hecho carne: Carlos Gardel | Historia hoy".
↑ Gardel – Felipe Pigna | PlanetadeLibros (in español) – via www.planetadelibros.com.ar.
↑ -2012 "Proyecto" (in español). {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
↑ [https:// surdelsur.com/es/10-argentinos-destacados-del-siglo-xx/#gardel "Carlos gardel, entre los argentinos más destacados e influyentes del siglo XX a nivel mundial"] (in español). 8 June 2018. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
↑ ^7.0 ^7.1 Ruffinelli, Jorge (2004). La sonrisa de Gardel: biografía, mito y ficción (in español). Montevideo: Trilce. ISBN 9974-32-356-8.
↑ "Discos originales de Carlos Gardel – Colección Horacio Loriente (1913-1935)" (in español). Unesco (Memoria del mundo). 2003. Retrieved 27 August 2012.
↑ Carlos Gardel, el mito que "cada día canta mejor". Infobae - 24-06-2010
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 48–50, 61–62. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 76. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 100. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ ^13.0 ^13.1 ^13.2 Torre, Raúl O.; Fenoglio, Juan J. (2005). Investigación criminalística sobre Carlos Gardel (in español). Buenos Aires: Dosyuna.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Kollmann, Raúl (November 12, 2012). "El Pibe Carlitos" (in español). Página/12. Retrieved December 13, 2013.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 186. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Páez, Jorge (1970). El conventillo (in español). Buenos Aires: Centro Editor de América Latina (Colección Historia Popular nº 1).
↑ Sumaje, Antonio (March 1944). "La vida de Carlos contada por su chofer". Extra (in español). Buenos Aires. cited by Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 400. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Gardel recalls Patasanta in a 1933 interview. El Suplemento (in español). Buenos Aires. April 19, 1933. {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) cited by Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 89. ISBN 9870400132. Hice de todo: desde utilero hasta comparsa, desde maquinista a qué se yo. Me hice muy buenos amigos entre los maquinistas y utileros, mis compañeros de entonces. Todavía conservo buenas amistades entre ellos. Ahí anda el campeón de la claque, el gran "Patasanta", que salió tantas veces de comparsa conmigo.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Antena (in español). Buenos Aires. March 18, 1933. {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) cited by Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 89. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 84–95. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Durán, Constanza (March 2, 2003). "Secretos de la vida de Gardel tras las paredes del Abasto" (in español). Clarín. Retrieved December 8, 2013.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 103–108. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 173–176. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ ^24.0 ^24.1 ^24.2 ^24.3 Taboada, Pablo (March 5, 2010). "Carlos Gardel. Reseña de su trayectoria artística (Parte I)" (in español). Investigación Tango. Retrieved December 8, 2013.
↑ ^25.0 ^25.1 ^25.2 ^25.3 Fakih, Carlos José: «Gardel, perfeccionamiento en el tiempo». In the magazine Todo es Historia, no. 282, December 1990.
↑ Taboada, Pablo. "Carlos Gardel. Reseña de su trayectoria artística (Parte II)" (in español). Investigación Tango. Retrieved December 8, 2013.
↑ ^27.0 ^27.1 "José Betinotti" (in español). Folklore Tradiciones. Retrieved December 8, 2013.
↑ "Arturo de Nava" (in español). Todo Tango. Retrieved December 14, 2013.
↑ ^29.0 ^29.1 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). "La canzonetta napolitana". Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 109–112. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ ^30.0 ^30.1 Giordano, Santiago (October 22, 2010). "Cantor General" (in español). Una Buena Pregunta. Retrieved December 8, 2013.
↑ ^31.0 ^31.1 ^31.2 ^31.3 Campos, Marco Antonio (December 9, 2007). "Gardel: que 117 años no es nada". La Jornada Semanal (nº 666) (in español). México: Universidad Autónoma de México. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 161. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 871. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Bruno Cespi y Héctor Lucci. "Gardel y su historia discográfica" (in español). Quién es Gardel. Archived from the original on December 1, 2012. Retrieved December 8, 2013.
↑ "Grabaciones correspondientes del año 1912" (in español). Museo Casa Carlos Gardel. Retrieved December 11, 2013.
↑ ^36.0 ^36.1 ^36.2 ^36.3 ^36.4 Gobello, José (1999). Breve historia crítica del tango (in español). Buenos Aires: Corregidor. pp. 68–70.
↑ Bazán, Osvaldo (2004). "El malevo Cepeda: "¿Te acordás hermano la Rubia Mireya, que quité en lo de Hansen al loco Cepeda?"". Historia de la homosexualidad en Argentina (in español). Buenos Aires: Marea. pp. 180-. ISBN 9789871307357.
↑ Parise, Eduardo (October 8, 2012). "El Armenonville, un cabaret inspirador" (in español). Buenos Aires: Clarín. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
↑ ^39.0 ^39.1 "José Razzano" (in español). Buenos Aires: Todo Tango. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
↑ ^40.0 ^40.1 ^40.2 ^40.3 ^40.4 Martínez, Marcelo O. (December 19, 2012). "Annus Horribilis" (in español). Gardel.es. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
↑ ^41.0 ^41.1 Puppo, Julio César (El Hachero) (1966). "El debut de Gardel". Ese mundo del bajo (in español). Montevideo: Arca.
↑ ^42.0 ^42.1 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 189–191. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ ^43.0 ^43.1 ^43.2 Julián y Osvaldo Barsky (November 27, 2012). "Carlos Gardel, por la delgada línea de la vida" (in español). Buenos Aires: Clarín. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
↑ "Saúl Salinas" (in español). Buenos Aires: Todo Tango.
↑ Gutiérrez, Eduardo (1886). "Juan Moreira" (in español). Buenos Aires: Clarín. Archived from the original on April 13, 2013.
↑ ^46.0 ^46.1 Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. pp. 61-62. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.
↑ ^47.0 ^47.1 Achával, Carlos. "Edmundo Guibourg y sus recuerdos con Gardel" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on August 8, 2011. Retrieved June 22, 2011.
↑ Carrasco, Adriana: «100×100 El Palais de Glace, de su centenario al del Salón Nacional», in the newspaper Clarín (Buenos Aires), June 12, 2011.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). "Incursiones en el varieté y nuevas grabaciones". Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 217–222. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). "Incursiones en el varieté y nuevas grabaciones". Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 220. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. p. 64. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.
↑ Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. p. 60. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). "Incursiones en el varieté y nuevas grabaciones". Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 222–226. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Francisco Defilippis Novoa. "Flor de durazno" (in español). IMDb. Retrieved December 15, 2013.
↑ Hugo Wast (1911). Flor de durazno (in español). Buenos Aires: Agencia General de Librerías y Publicaciones.
↑ ^56.0 ^56.1 Rasore, Alberto. "Carlos Gardel en el cine mudo "Flor de durazno"" (in español). Buenos Aires Antiguo. Retrieved December 15, 2013.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 237. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 233. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 238. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. p. 185. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 119, 242–245. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Carlos Marambio Catán (1973). El tango que yo viví. 60 años de tango (in español). Buenos Aires: Freeland. p. 98. cited by Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 119. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Gobello, José and Bossio, Jorge Alberto, Tangos y letristas vol. 1 p. 39, 1975, Buenos Aires, Editorial Plus Ultra.
↑ García Jiménez, Francisco, Así nacieron los tangos p. 93, 1981, Ediciones Corregidor
↑ Federación de Entidades Sicilianas de Buenos Aires y Sur de la República Argentina. "Reseña histórica sobre las Asociaciones Italianas" (in español). Buenos Aires: FESISUR. Archived from the original on August 14, 2013.
↑ Sarramone, Alberto (1999). Los abuelos inmigrantes (in español). Buenos Aires: Biblos Azul. pp. 144, 323–325. ISBN 987-9435-01-4. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
↑ ^67.0 ^67.1 Gobello, José (1999). Breve historia crítica del tango (in español). Buenos Aires: Corregidor. pp. 76–78.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). "Anexo III: Discografía". Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 871 ff. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ ^69.0 ^69.1 Nudler, Julio. "Celedonio Flores" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on March 28, 2014. Retrieved December 18, 2013.
↑ Francisco Canaro y Juan Andrés Caruso. "Los indios" (in español). Todo Tango. Retrieved December 25, 2013.
↑ Del Greco, Orlando (1990). Gardel y los autores de sus canciones (in español). Buenos Aires: Akian. p. 357. ISBN 950-99589-0-3. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help), cited by Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 246. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 246. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 375–376. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 347–356. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Loriente, Horacio. "José Razzano" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on December 29, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.
↑ "Gardel, puente entre ciudades" (in español). Barcelona: El Periódico. July 21, 2011. Retrieved December 11, 2013.
↑ "Teodoro Diez Cepeda" (in español). Todo Tango. Retrieved December 16, 2013.
↑ Himschoot, Oscar B. "Autores españoles que grabó Gardel" (in español). Club de Tango. Retrieved December 16, 2013.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 379–381. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. p. 115. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 377. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 419. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. p. 128. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 444. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 451. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. pp. 132-133. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 458. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. p. 131. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 448. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Rasore, Alberto. "José Ricardo" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on December 19, 2013. Retrieved December 22, 2013.
↑ Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. p. 149. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.
↑ ^92.0 ^92.1 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 590–591, 602. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Getino, Octavio (2007). Cine iberoamericano: los desafíos del nuevo siglo (in español). Buenos Aires: Ciccus. p. 92. ISBN 9789879355411.
↑ Cadícamo, Enrique (1975). Historia del tango en París (in español). Buenos Aires: Corregidor., cited by Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 511. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 832. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Remeseira, Claudio Iván (2010). "Carlos Gardel in New York: the birth of a Hispanic-American myth". Hispanic New York: A Sourcebook. Chichester, New York: Columbia University Press. p. 460. ISBN 9780231519779.
↑ ^97.0 ^97.1 ^97.2 ^97.3 Rasore, Alberto (November 2006). "Gardel en los cortometrajes de 1930" (in español). Buenos Aires Antiguo. Retrieved December 23, 2013.
↑ ^98.0 ^98.1 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). "Los cortometrajes del año 1930". Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 493–501. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Grassi, Jorge Alberto. "El género musical latinoamericano (1ra parte)" (in español). Hamal Web. Archived from the original on August 8, 2012. Retrieved December 23, 2013.
↑ ^100.0 ^100.1 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 505. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ ^101.0 ^101.1 ^101.2 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 513–522. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Aballe, Guadalupe. "Las películas de Gardel, sus argumentos y sus canciones" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on January 10, 2014. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
↑ Descalzi, Ricardo. "Carlos Gardel: símbolo y síntesis del tango" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on October 31, 2013. Retrieved December 24, 2013.
↑ De la Púa, Carlos (September 15, 1931). "Che Carlitos, largá la canzoneta" (in español). Buenos Aires: Crítica. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help), cited by Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 594. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 526. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ ^106.0 ^106.1 ^106.2 ^106.3 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 535–550. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 718. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Julián (February 12, 2012). "Lucien Jaquelux, el ilustrador cineasta" (in español). Gardel el Cantor del Tango. Retrieved December 24, 2013.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 553–556. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 562. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 556. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 548. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 563. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. p. 229. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 668. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Gregorutti, Hugo (February 27, 2012). "Turig Tucci, el músico que acompañó la incursión neoyorkina de Gardel" (in español). Paraná: El Diario. Retrieved January 8, 2014.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 660. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 674. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 687. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ ^120.0 ^120.1 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 686–691. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ ^121.0 ^121.1 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 701–707. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ ^122.0 ^122.1 ^122.2 ^122.3 Yépez, Arturo (July 2009). "El tango en Puerto Rico" (in español). Puerto Rico: Tango Reporter Nº 159. Retrieved January 9, 2015.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 708–709. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Martínez, Marcelo O. (2013). "Videos de sus canciones" (in español). Gardel. Retrieved January 11, 2015.
↑ ^125.0 ^125.1 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 710. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. p. 268. ISBN 9500715155.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 712–716. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 719. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Gutman, Jorge: «La amistad de Gardel y Piazzolla» Archived March 31, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, article on the Todotango website. Retrieved 04/12/2013
↑ «Piazzolla y Gardel, encuentros en Nueva York» Archived June 26, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, article on the LP Tango website. Retrieved April 12, 2013.
↑ Ástor Piazzolla (1978). "Carta de Piazzolla a Gardel" (in español). Tango City. Archived from the original on April 14, 2015. Retrieved January 11, 2015.
↑ Torres Negrón, Fernando (January 1, 2014). "Carlos Gardel en Puerto Rico" (in español). Historia y Genealogia PR. Contando y Recordando. Retrieved January 12, 2015.
↑ Sarria, Rafael (October 13, 2014). "Carlos Gardel llegó a Venezuela, desde la Broadcasting Caracas" (in español). Radio Venezuela. Retrieved January 12, 2015.
↑ ^134.0 ^134.1 Rico Salazar, Jaime (July 31, 1996). "La gira de Carlos Gardel por Venezuela" (in español). Club de Tango (republication from the newspaper Altazor). Retrieved January 12, 2015. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
↑ ^135.0 ^135.1 Buono, Marcos Ángel (June 20, 1980). "La última sonrisa de Gardel" (in español). Universidad Nacional de San Luis (republication from the magazine Siete Días). Retrieved January 12, 2015. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
↑ Acosta, Ramsay (May 29, 2010). "Un dúa farandulero ma Aruba 75 ana pasa" (in Papiamentu). Aruba: Diario. Retrieved January 12, 2015.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 763. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ ^138.0 ^138.1 Angulo, José Cervantes (1985). "Los últimos 100 días de Carlos Gardel" (in español). Colombia: El Heraldo. Archived from the original on January 13, 2015. Retrieved January 12, 2015.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 771. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 769. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 773. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 784–786. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Julián y Osvaldo Barsky (2010), Gardel el cantor del tango, Libros del Zorzal. ISBN 987-987-599-178-1.
↑ ^144.0 ^144.1 ^144.2 ^144.3 ^144.4 ^144.5 ^144.6 Piernes, Justo. "Las guitarras de Gardel" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on October 22, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.
↑ ^145.0 ^145.1 Celina, Walter Ernesto (April 22, 2008). "Las guitarras de Gardel" (in español). Gardelianas. Retrieved December 11, 2013.
↑ ^146.0 ^146.1 ^146.2 ^146.3 ^146.4 ^146.5 ^146.6 ^146.7 Celina, Walter Ernesto. "Los guitarristas de Gardel". Los Grandes del Tango (in español). 1 (52). El Guitarrista. Retrieved December 11, 2013.
↑ Gobello, José (1999). Breve historia crítica del tango (in español). Corregidor. p. 69. ISBN 9500512378.
↑ Zatti, Rodolfo Omar. "Gardel y los burros" (in español). LP Tango. Archived from the original on December 18, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 397–403. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 355. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 400. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Esteban, Juan Carlos. "Los encuentros familiares de Gardel" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on October 22, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.
↑ ^153.0 ^153.1 Guibourg, Edmundo (June 24, 1975). "En la memoria de un amigo" (in español). Buenos Aires: La Opinión (republished by Todo Tango). Archived from the original on October 22, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.
↑ Olivieri, Ángel. "Mi amigo José Razzano, el compañero del alma de Carlos Gardel" (in español). Buenos Aires: Todo Tango). Archived from the original on October 22, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.
↑ Turón, Ana (March 6, 2004). "Carta a Edmundo Guibourg (1893-1986)" (in español). Buenos Aires: AYLN. Retrieved December 11, 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
↑ Neustadt, Bernardo (November 1966). "Entrevista a Irineo Leguisamo" (in español). II (16). Buenos Aires: Sitio Oficial de Bernardo Neustadt. Retrieved December 11, 2013. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
↑ ^157.0 ^157.1 ^157.2 Zatti, Rodolfo Omar. "Gardel y "los burros". Historias, anécdotas y testimonios de una pasión pura sangre" (in español). Buenos Aires: LP Tango. Archived from the original on December 18, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.
↑ Echaniz, Alfredo. "Carlos Gardel - Los herederos. Exposición homenaje" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on December 16, 2013. Retrieved December 12, 2013.
↑ ^159.0 ^159.1 Ostuni, Ricardo. "Cómo fue la vida amorosa de Carlos Gardel" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on May 16, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.
↑ "Sigue polémica sobre virilidad de Carlos Gardel" (in español). Ecuador: Hoy. May 18, 1993. Archived from the original on December 13, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.
↑ "¿Gardel era gay? Las confesiones que pusieron en duda la sexualidad del Zorzal" (in español). Rosario (Argentina): Rosario 3. July 10, 2007. Archived from the original on December 15, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.
↑ "¿Carlos Gardel homosexual?" (in español). Managua (Nicaragua): El Nuevo Diario. September 25, 2004. Archived from the original on December 16, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.
↑ "Carlos Gardel (1890-1935)" (in español). Carlos Gardel 8M. Archived from the original on December 16, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.
↑ Guadalupe Aballe. "La novia de Gardel" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on December 22, 2013. Retrieved December 25, 2013.
↑ "Entrevista a Isabel del Valle". Tiempo Argentino (in español). Buenos Aires. July 15, 1984. Isabel del Valle: ―Yo conocí a Carlos cuando Carlos ya era un gran cantante...
Periodista: ―¿Cuántos años tenía Gardel entonces? Isabel del Valle: ―Él ya tenía treinta y cuatro años y yo no había cumplido catorce... Me llevaba veinte a mí. [Isabel del Valle: ―I met Carlos when Carlos was already a great singer...
Journalist: ―How old was Gardel then? Isabel del Valle: ―He was already thirty-four and I had not yet turned fourteen... He was twenty years older than me.]
↑ Zatti, Rodolfo Omar (1990). Gardel. Su gran pasión: el turf (in español). Buenos Aires: Corregidor. ISBN 9789500505871.
↑ Marily Contreras (2005). Gardel... es un soplo la vida (in español) (1st ed.). Libros del Zorzal. pp. 93–98. ISBN 9789871081622. Record in OpenLibrary
↑ ^168.0 ^168.1 Pinsón, Néstor. "Lunático, el pingo de Gardel" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on October 22, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.
↑ "Racing dio a conocer el carnet de socio de Carlos Gardel". El Litoral (in español). January 9, 2015. Retrieved June 2, 2015.
↑ Sica Dell'Isola, Nelson (2007). El tango, el boxeo y... Gardel (in español). Montevideo: Academia del Tango del Uruguay.
↑ Ferradans, Gustavo: «Gardel y su pasión deportiva» Archived October 24, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, article in El Diario del Centro del País (Córdoba), December 12, 2009. Retrieved February 10, 2012.
↑ In Teatro Colón, Orquesta Estable. Historia y anécdotas. Osvaldo Barrios and Edmundo Piccioni, Ediciones Nuevos Tiempos. [1] Archived December 8, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
↑ Article by Eduardo Bonessi in Revista Tanguera, June 24, 1963.
↑ Carlos Gardel: a la luz de la Historia, Nelson Bayardo. Ed Fundación BankBoston, Montevideo (2000)
↑ Rivero, Edmundo (1985). Las voces, Gardel y el canto (in español). Buenos Aires: Técnica Latinoamericana.
↑ "Día del Tango" (in español). Ministerio de Educación de la Nación Argentina. Retrieved October 27, 2013.
↑ Dema, Verónica (September 20, 2012). "Fin del misterio: muestran la partida de nacimiento de Gardel" (in español). Buenos Aires: La Nación. Retrieved December 13, 2013.
↑ "Profundizando el acto de nacimiento de Carlos Gardel" (in español).
↑ Ricardo García Blaya. "El testamento de Gardel". Todo Tango (in español).
↑ "El Testamento Ológrafo de Carlos Gardel". La Gazeta (in español).
↑ ^181.0 ^181.1 Esteban, Juan Carlos. "Invalidéz de la documentación uruguaya de 1920" (in español). Quién es Gardel. Archived from the original on December 15, 2013. Retrieved December 13, 2013.
↑ Rafael Sabini (June 2008). "Made in T…". Revista El Abasto, no. 99 (in español). Retrieved April 17, 2010.
↑ [2]
↑ "Copia archivada" (in español). Archived from the original on December 2, 2011. Retrieved November 29, 2011.
↑ García Jiménez, Francisco (1946). Vida de Carlos Gardel contada por José Razzano (in español). Buenos Aires.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
↑ Fernández, Augusto (1973). Por siempre Gardel (in español). Buenos Aires: Latinprens.
↑ Esteban, Carlos (2001). Carlos Gardel, encuadre histórico (in español). Buenos Aires: Corregidor.
↑ Esteban, Juan Carlos; Galopa, Georges; Ruffié, Monique (2006). Carlos Gardel y sus antecedentes franceses (in español). Buenos Aires: Corregidor.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Esteban, Juan Carlos; Galopa, Georges; Ruffié, Monique (2010). Carlos Gardel, controversia y punto final (in español). Buenos Aires: Corregidor.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Esteban, Juan Carlos; Galopa, Georges (2012). Al rescate de Carlos Gardel (in español). Buenos Aires: Corregidor.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Esteban, Juan Carlos; Galopa, Georges; Ruffié, Monique (2013). El padre de Gardel (in español). Buenos Aires: Proa.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Esteban, Juan Carlos; Galopa, Georges (2013). El desamparo del joven Gardés (in español). Buenos Aires: Prosa.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Bricheteau, Christiane (2004). Généalogie d'un mythe ou la famille toulousaine de Carlos Gardel (in français). Toulouse: Self-published.
↑ Espina Rawson, Enrique (2006). Disparen sobre Gardel: toda la verdad, sólo la verdad y nada más que la verdad (in español). Buenos Aires: Editions de la Rue du Canon d'Arcole.
↑ Regueira, Norberto Ignacio (2009). Caso Gardel (in español). Buenos Aires: Proa.
↑ Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.
↑ Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Pigna, Felipe (2020). Gardel (in español). Buenos Aires: Planeta. ISBN 9789504970378.
↑ Carlos Escayola [3]
↑ "Blanca Oliva de Escayola" (in español). El Uruguayo Carlos Gardel. Retrieved December 21, 2013.
↑ Iñíguez, Martina. "María Lelia Oliva, madre de Carlos Gardel. Sus otros hijos" (in español). El Uruguayo Carlos Gardel. Retrieved December 21, 2013.
↑ "Carlos Segundo Escayola, hijo del Coronel Escayola" (in español). My Heritage. Archived from the original on December 24, 2013. Retrieved December 21, 2013.
↑ «Documentos oficiales de Carlos Gardel», on the website El uruguayo Carlos Gardel.
↑ Giubellino, Gabriel (June 24, 2004). "La Justicia cierra la polémica sobre el origen de Carlos Gardel" (in español). Clarín. Retrieved August 11, 2012.
↑ Silva Cabrera, Erasmo (Avlis) (1967). Carlos Gardel, ese gran desconocido (in español). Montevideo: Self-published.
↑ Silva Cabrera, Erasmo (Avlis) (1975). Gardel oriental, alegato por la verdad (in español). Montevideo: El País.
↑ Silva Cabrera, Erasmo (Avlis) (1985). Carlos Gardel: el hombre y su muerte (in español). Montevideo: Self-published.
↑ Matomoro, Blas (1971). Carlos Gardel (in español). Buenos Aires: Centro Editor de América Latina (Colección La Historia Popular nº 24).
↑ Bayardo, Nelson (1988). Vida y milagros de Carlos Gardel (in español). Montevideo: La República.
↑ Payssé González, Eduardo (1990). Carlos Gardel: páginas abiertas (in español). Montevideo: Prometeo.
↑ Iñíguez, Martina (2003–2013). Carlos Gardel, su biografía oculta, entre 1846 y 1912 (in español). Buenos Aires: Self-published.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
↑ Ostuni, Ricardo (1998). Repatriación de Gardel (in español). Buenos Aires: Corregidor. ISBN 9789879561102.
↑ Sica dell'Isola, Nelson (2013). Gardel, Durazno y Paysandú (in español). Montevideo: Ediciones Tanguedia.
↑ Vázquez Gabor, Gonzalo (2013). De Carlos Escayola a Carlos Gardel (in español). Montevideo: Torre del Vigía.
↑ http://www.findesiglo.com.uy/los-secretos-del-coronel-por-susana-cabrera/ ^{[dead link]}
↑ Francisco Pracánico (music); Celedonio Flores (lyrics) (1933), Corrientes y Esmeralda (in español), Todo Tango{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Flores, Rafael. "Las fotos de Silva" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on October 22, 2013. Retrieved December 13, 2013.
↑ Alexander, Abel (December 9, 2012). "Las fotografías que construyeron un mito" (in español). Clarín. Retrieved December 13, 2013.
↑ Bequer Casaballe, A. "José María Silva, el fotógrafo de Gardel" (in español). Chelo Tango. Archived from the original on December 28, 2013. Retrieved December 25, 2013.
↑ Ruffinelli, Jorge (2004). La sonrisa de Gardel: biografía, mito y ficción (in español). Montevideo: Trilce. p. 7. ISBN 9974-32-356-8.
↑ Gardeles en Obras: Una celebración necesaria. No son horas Web - 04-03-2019
↑ "Información sobre la cantidad de sus grabaciones" (in español). Retrieved April 23, 2010.
↑ Gardel singing in Guaraní, Mosaicos Porteños
↑ «“Largue a esa Mujica”, la canción misteriosa», article on the website Gardel-ES.

Bibliography

Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 234–238. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
BAYARDO, Nelson: Carlos Gardel, a la luz de la historia. Montevideo (Uruguay): Aguilar, 2000. ISBN 9974-653-87-8.
OSTUNI, Ricardo. Repatriación de Gardel. Buenos Aires: Corregidor. ISBN 78-950-05-1114-8.
RÍOS, Carlos; and Javier PENELAS: José Razzano, de la sombra al protagonismo. Buenos Aires: AqL, 2010. ISBN 978-987-1159-78-9.
RUFFIÉ DE SAINT-BLANCAT, Monique; Juan Carlos ESTEBAN; and Georges GALOPA: Carlos Gardel - Sus antecedentes franceses. Corregidor, Buenos Aires 2006, ISBN 950-05-1634-9.

External links

Carlos Gardel, el hombre que puso voz al tango Radio Nacional de España (in Spanish)

[Hipótesis_uruguayista-1] 1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 See the Uruguayan hypothesis.

[Hipótesis_francesista-2] 2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 See the French hypothesis.

[3] "El Tango hecho carne: Carlos Gardel | Historia hoy".

[4] Gardel – Felipe Pigna | PlanetadeLibros (in español) – via www.planetadelibros.com.ar.

[5] -2012 "Proyecto" (in español). {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)

[6] [https:// surdelsur.com/es/10-argentinos-destacados-del-siglo-xx/#gardel "Carlos gardel, entre los argentinos más destacados e influyentes del siglo XX a nivel mundial"] (in español). 8 June 2018. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)

[Ruffinelli-7] 7.0 ^7.1 Ruffinelli, Jorge (2004). La sonrisa de Gardel: biografía, mito y ficción (in español). Montevideo: Trilce. ISBN 9974-32-356-8.

[8] "Discos originales de Carlos Gardel – Colección Horacio Loriente (1913-1935)" (in español). Unesco (Memoria del mundo). 2003. Retrieved 27 August 2012.

[9] Carlos Gardel, el mito que "cada día canta mejor". Infobae - 24-06-2010

[Barsky48-50-10] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 48–50, 61–62. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky76-11] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 76. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky100-12] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 100. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Torre-Fenoglio-13] 13.0 ^13.1 ^13.2 Torre, Raúl O.; Fenoglio, Juan J. (2005). Investigación criminalística sobre Carlos Gardel (in español). Buenos Aires: Dosyuna.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[14] Kollmann, Raúl (November 12, 2012). "El Pibe Carlitos" (in español). Página/12. Retrieved December 13, 2013.

[Barsky186-15] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 186. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[16] Páez, Jorge (1970). El conventillo (in español). Buenos Aires: Centro Editor de América Latina (Colección Historia Popular nº 1).

[Barsky-Sumaje-17] Sumaje, Antonio (March 1944). "La vida de Carlos contada por su chofer". Extra (in español). Buenos Aires. cited by Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 400. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[18] Gardel recalls Patasanta in a 1933 interview. El Suplemento (in español). Buenos Aires. April 19, 1933. {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) cited by Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 89. ISBN 9870400132. Hice de todo: desde utilero hasta comparsa, desde maquinista a qué se yo. Me hice muy buenos amigos entre los maquinistas y utileros, mis compañeros de entonces. Todavía conservo buenas amistades entre ellos. Ahí anda el campeón de la claque, el gran "Patasanta", que salió tantas veces de comparsa conmigo.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[19] Antena (in español). Buenos Aires. March 18, 1933. {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) cited by Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 89. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky84-95-20] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 84–95. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Clarín-Gardel-Abasto-21] Durán, Constanza (March 2, 2003). "Secretos de la vida de Gardel tras las paredes del Abasto" (in español). Clarín. Retrieved December 8, 2013.

[Barsky103-108-22] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 103–108. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky173-176-23] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 173–176. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[TaboadaI-24] 24.0 ^24.1 ^24.2 ^24.3 Taboada, Pablo (March 5, 2010). "Carlos Gardel. Reseña de su trayectoria artística (Parte I)" (in español). Investigación Tango. Retrieved December 8, 2013.

[Fakih-25] 25.0 ^25.1 ^25.2 ^25.3 Fakih, Carlos José: «Gardel, perfeccionamiento en el tiempo». In the magazine Todo es Historia, no. 282, December 1990.

[TaboadaII-26] Taboada, Pablo. "Carlos Gardel. Reseña de su trayectoria artística (Parte II)" (in español). Investigación Tango. Retrieved December 8, 2013.

[Betinotti-27] 27.0 ^27.1 "José Betinotti" (in español). Folklore Tradiciones. Retrieved December 8, 2013.

[28] "Arturo de Nava" (in español). Todo Tango. Retrieved December 14, 2013.

[Barsky109-112-29] 29.0 ^29.1 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). "La canzonetta napolitana". Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 109–112. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Giordano-30] 30.0 ^30.1 Giordano, Santiago (October 22, 2010). "Cantor General" (in español). Una Buena Pregunta. Retrieved December 8, 2013.

[Jornada-Armenonville-31] 31.0 ^31.1 ^31.2 ^31.3 Campos, Marco Antonio (December 9, 2007). "Gardel: que 117 años no es nada". La Jornada Semanal (nº 666) (in español). México: Universidad Autónoma de México. Retrieved December 10, 2013.

[Barsky161-32] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 161. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky871-33] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 871. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Gardel-1raDisco-34] Bruno Cespi y Héctor Lucci. "Gardel y su historia discográfica" (in español). Quién es Gardel. Archived from the original on December 1, 2012. Retrieved December 8, 2013.

[MuseoGardel-1raDisco-35] "Grabaciones correspondientes del año 1912" (in español). Museo Casa Carlos Gardel. Retrieved December 11, 2013.

[Gobello-68-70-36] 36.0 ^36.1 ^36.2 ^36.3 ^36.4 Gobello, José (1999). Breve historia crítica del tango (in español). Buenos Aires: Corregidor. pp. 68–70.

[Bazán-37] Bazán, Osvaldo (2004). "El malevo Cepeda: "¿Te acordás hermano la Rubia Mireya, que quité en lo de Hansen al loco Cepeda?"". Historia de la homosexualidad en Argentina (in español). Buenos Aires: Marea. pp. 180-. ISBN 9789871307357.

[Clarín-Armenonville-38] Parise, Eduardo (October 8, 2012). "El Armenonville, un cabaret inspirador" (in español). Buenos Aires: Clarín. Retrieved December 10, 2013.

[CartaGardelRazzano-39] 39.0 ^39.1 "José Razzano" (in español). Buenos Aires: Todo Tango. Retrieved December 10, 2013.

[AnnusHorribilis-40] 40.0 ^40.1 ^40.2 ^40.3 ^40.4 Martínez, Marcelo O. (December 19, 2012). "Annus Horribilis" (in español). Gardel.es. Retrieved December 10, 2013.

[Puppo-41] 41.0 ^41.1 Puppo, Julio César (El Hachero) (1966). "El debut de Gardel". Ese mundo del bajo (in español). Montevideo: Arca.

[Barsky189-191-42] 42.0 ^42.1 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 189–191. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Clarín2012-Barsky-43] 43.0 ^43.1 ^43.2 Julián y Osvaldo Barsky (November 27, 2012). "Carlos Gardel, por la delgada línea de la vida" (in español). Buenos Aires: Clarín. Retrieved December 10, 2013.

[44] "Saúl Salinas" (in español). Buenos Aires: Todo Tango.

[45] Gutiérrez, Eduardo (1886). "Juan Moreira" (in español). Buenos Aires: Clarín. Archived from the original on April 13, 2013.

[Collier-61-62-46] 46.0 ^46.1 Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. pp. 61-62. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.

[ACHAVAL-47] 47.0 ^47.1 Achával, Carlos. "Edmundo Guibourg y sus recuerdos con Gardel" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on August 8, 2011. Retrieved June 22, 2011.

[48] Carrasco, Adriana: «100×100 El Palais de Glace, de su centenario al del Salón Nacional», in the newspaper Clarín (Buenos Aires), June 12, 2011.

[Barsky217-222-49] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). "Incursiones en el varieté y nuevas grabaciones". Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 217–222. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky220-50] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). "Incursiones en el varieté y nuevas grabaciones". Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 220. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Collier-64-51] Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. p. 64. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.

[Collier-60-52] Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. p. 60. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.

[Barsky222-226-53] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). "Incursiones en el varieté y nuevas grabaciones". Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 222–226. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[54] Francisco Defilippis Novoa. "Flor de durazno" (in español). IMDb. Retrieved December 15, 2013.

[55] Hugo Wast (1911). Flor de durazno (in español). Buenos Aires: Agencia General de Librerías y Publicaciones.

[720ba0d5-56] 56.0 ^56.1 Rasore, Alberto. "Carlos Gardel en el cine mudo "Flor de durazno"" (in español). Buenos Aires Antiguo. Retrieved December 15, 2013.

[Barsky237-57] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 237. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky233-58] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 233. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky238-59] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 238. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Collier-185-60] Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. p. 185. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.

[Barsky-119-242-245-61] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 119, 242–245. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Marambio-62] Carlos Marambio Catán (1973). El tango que yo viví. 60 años de tango (in español). Buenos Aires: Freeland. p. 98. cited by Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 119. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[63] Gobello, José and Bossio, Jorge Alberto, Tangos y letristas vol. 1 p. 39, 1975, Buenos Aires, Editorial Plus Ultra.

[64] García Jiménez, Francisco, Así nacieron los tangos p. 93, 1981, Ediciones Corregidor

[65] Federación de Entidades Sicilianas de Buenos Aires y Sur de la República Argentina. "Reseña histórica sobre las Asociaciones Italianas" (in español). Buenos Aires: FESISUR. Archived from the original on August 14, 2013.

[66] Sarramone, Alberto (1999). Los abuelos inmigrantes (in español). Buenos Aires: Biblos Azul. pp. 144, 323–325. ISBN 987-9435-01-4. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)

[Gobello-76-78-67] 67.0 ^67.1 Gobello, José (1999). Breve historia crítica del tango (in español). Buenos Aires: Corregidor. pp. 76–78.

[Barsky-Discografía-68] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). "Anexo III: Discografía". Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 871 ff. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Celedonio-69] 69.0 ^69.1 Nudler, Julio. "Celedonio Flores" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on March 28, 2014. Retrieved December 18, 2013.

[70] Francisco Canaro y Juan Andrés Caruso. "Los indios" (in español). Todo Tango. Retrieved December 25, 2013.

[Barsky_Scolatti-71] Del Greco, Orlando (1990). Gardel y los autores de sus canciones (in español). Buenos Aires: Akian. p. 357. ISBN 950-99589-0-3. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help), cited by Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 246. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky290-294-72] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 246. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky375-376-73] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 375–376. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky347-356-74] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 347–356. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[75] Loriente, Horacio. "José Razzano" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on December 29, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.

[76] "Gardel, puente entre ciudades" (in español). Barcelona: El Periódico. July 21, 2011. Retrieved December 11, 2013.

[77] "Teodoro Diez Cepeda" (in español). Todo Tango. Retrieved December 16, 2013.

[78] Himschoot, Oscar B. "Autores españoles que grabó Gardel" (in español). Club de Tango. Retrieved December 16, 2013.

[Barsky379-381-79] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 379–381. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Collier-115-80] Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. p. 115. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.

[Barsky377-81] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 377. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky419-82] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 419. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Collier-128-83] Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. p. 128. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.

[Barsky444-84] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 444. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky451-85] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 451. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Collier-132.133-86] Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. pp. 132-133. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.

[Barsky458-87] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 458. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Collier-131-88] Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. p. 131. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.

[Barsky448-89] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 448. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[90] Rasore, Alberto. "José Ricardo" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on December 19, 2013. Retrieved December 22, 2013.

[Collier-149-91] Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. p. 149. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.

[Barsky590-591-602-92] 92.0 ^92.1 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 590–591, 602. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[93] Getino, Octavio (2007). Cine iberoamericano: los desafíos del nuevo siglo (in español). Buenos Aires: Ciccus. p. 92. ISBN 9789879355411.

[Barsky-Cadícamo-94] Cadícamo, Enrique (1975). Historia del tango en París (in español). Buenos Aires: Corregidor., cited by Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 511. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky832-95] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 832. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[96] Remeseira, Claudio Iván (2010). "Carlos Gardel in New York: the birth of a Hispanic-American myth". Hispanic New York: A Sourcebook. Chichester, New York: Columbia University Press. p. 460. ISBN 9780231519779.

[Rasore-97] 97.0 ^97.1 ^97.2 ^97.3 Rasore, Alberto (November 2006). "Gardel en los cortometrajes de 1930" (in español). Buenos Aires Antiguo. Retrieved December 23, 2013.

[Barsky493-501-98] 98.0 ^98.1 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). "Los cortometrajes del año 1930". Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 493–501. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[99] Grassi, Jorge Alberto. "El género musical latinoamericano (1ra parte)" (in español). Hamal Web. Archived from the original on August 8, 2012. Retrieved December 23, 2013.

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[Barsky513-522-101] 101.0 ^101.1 ^101.2 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 513–522. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[TT-Películas-102] Aballe, Guadalupe. "Las películas de Gardel, sus argumentos y sus canciones" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on January 10, 2014. Retrieved December 10, 2013.

[103] Descalzi, Ricardo. "Carlos Gardel: símbolo y síntesis del tango" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on October 31, 2013. Retrieved December 24, 2013.

[Barsky594-104] De la Púa, Carlos (September 15, 1931). "Che Carlitos, largá la canzoneta" (in español). Buenos Aires: Crítica. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help), cited by Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 594. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky526-105] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 526. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky535-550-106] 106.0 ^106.1 ^106.2 ^106.3 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 535–550. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky718-107] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 718. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Lucien_Jaquelux-108] Barsky, Julián (February 12, 2012). "Lucien Jaquelux, el ilustrador cineasta" (in español). Gardel el Cantor del Tango. Retrieved December 24, 2013.

[Barsky553-556-109] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 553–556. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky562-110] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 562. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky556-111] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 556. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky548-112] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 548. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky563-113] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 563. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Collier-229-114] Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. p. 229. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.

[Barsky668-115] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 668. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[116] Gregorutti, Hugo (February 27, 2012). "Turig Tucci, el músico que acompañó la incursión neoyorkina de Gardel" (in español). Paraná: El Diario. Retrieved January 8, 2014.

[Barsky660-117] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 660. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky674-118] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 674. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky687-119] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 687. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky686-691-120] 120.0 ^120.1 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 686–691. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky701-121] 121.0 ^121.1 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 701–707. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Puerto_Rico-122] 122.0 ^122.1 ^122.2 ^122.3 Yépez, Arturo (July 2009). "El tango en Puerto Rico" (in español). Puerto Rico: Tango Reporter Nº 159. Retrieved January 9, 2015.

[Barsky708-123] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 708–709. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[124] Martínez, Marcelo O. (2013). "Videos de sus canciones" (in español). Gardel. Retrieved January 11, 2015.

[Barsky710-125] 125.0 ^125.1 Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 710. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Collier268-126] Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. p. 268. ISBN 9500715155.

[Barsky712-716-127] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 712–716. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky719-128] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 719. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[129] Gutman, Jorge: «La amistad de Gardel y Piazzolla» Archived March 31, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, article on the Todotango website. Retrieved 04/12/2013

[130] «Piazzolla y Gardel, encuentros en Nueva York» Archived June 26, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, article on the LP Tango website. Retrieved April 12, 2013.

[131] Ástor Piazzolla (1978). "Carta de Piazzolla a Gardel" (in español). Tango City. Archived from the original on April 14, 2015. Retrieved January 11, 2015.

[132] Torres Negrón, Fernando (January 1, 2014). "Carlos Gardel en Puerto Rico" (in español). Historia y Genealogia PR. Contando y Recordando. Retrieved January 12, 2015.

[133] Sarria, Rafael (October 13, 2014). "Carlos Gardel llegó a Venezuela, desde la Broadcasting Caracas" (in español). Radio Venezuela. Retrieved January 12, 2015.

[Gardel_en_Venezuela-134] 134.0 ^134.1 Rico Salazar, Jaime (July 31, 1996). "La gira de Carlos Gardel por Venezuela" (in español). Club de Tango (republication from the newspaper Altazor). Retrieved January 12, 2015. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)

[La_última_sonrisa-135] 135.0 ^135.1 Buono, Marcos Ángel (June 20, 1980). "La última sonrisa de Gardel" (in español). Universidad Nacional de San Luis (republication from the magazine Siete Días). Retrieved January 12, 2015. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)

[136] Acosta, Ramsay (May 29, 2010). "Un dúa farandulero ma Aruba 75 ana pasa" (in Papiamentu). Aruba: Diario. Retrieved January 12, 2015.

[Barsky763-137] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 763. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Los_últimos_100-138] 138.0 ^138.1 Angulo, José Cervantes (1985). "Los últimos 100 días de Carlos Gardel" (in español). Colombia: El Heraldo. Archived from the original on January 13, 2015. Retrieved January 12, 2015.

[Barsky771-139] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 771. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky769-140] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 769. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky773-141] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 773. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky784-786-142] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 784–786. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[143] Julián y Osvaldo Barsky (2010), Gardel el cantor del tango, Libros del Zorzal. ISBN 987-987-599-178-1.

[Guitarristas-Piernes-144] 144.0 ^144.1 ^144.2 ^144.3 ^144.4 ^144.5 ^144.6 Piernes, Justo. "Las guitarras de Gardel" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on October 22, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.

[Guitarristas-Celina-145] 145.0 ^145.1 Celina, Walter Ernesto (April 22, 2008). "Las guitarras de Gardel" (in español). Gardelianas. Retrieved December 11, 2013.

[Guitarristas-Rego-146] 146.0 ^146.1 ^146.2 ^146.3 ^146.4 ^146.5 ^146.6 ^146.7 Celina, Walter Ernesto. "Los guitarristas de Gardel". Los Grandes del Tango (in español). 1 (52). El Guitarrista. Retrieved December 11, 2013.

[147] Gobello, José (1999). Breve historia crítica del tango (in español). Corregidor. p. 69. ISBN 9500512378.

[148] Zatti, Rodolfo Omar. "Gardel y los burros" (in español). LP Tango. Archived from the original on December 18, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.

[Barsky397-403-149] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. pp. 397–403. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky355-150] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 355. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Barsky400-151] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. p. 400. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[152] Esteban, Juan Carlos. "Los encuentros familiares de Gardel" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on October 22, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.

[Guiburg-153] 153.0 ^153.1 Guibourg, Edmundo (June 24, 1975). "En la memoria de un amigo" (in español). Buenos Aires: La Opinión (republished by Todo Tango). Archived from the original on October 22, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.

[Razzano-Olivieri-154] Olivieri, Ángel. "Mi amigo José Razzano, el compañero del alma de Carlos Gardel" (in español). Buenos Aires: Todo Tango). Archived from the original on October 22, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.

[CartaGardelGuibourg-155] Turón, Ana (March 6, 2004). "Carta a Edmundo Guibourg (1893-1986)" (in español). Buenos Aires: AYLN. Retrieved December 11, 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)

[Leguisamo-156] Neustadt, Bernardo (November 1966). "Entrevista a Irineo Leguisamo" (in español). II (16). Buenos Aires: Sitio Oficial de Bernardo Neustadt. Retrieved December 11, 2013. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[Zatti-157] 157.0 ^157.1 ^157.2 Zatti, Rodolfo Omar. "Gardel y "los burros". Historias, anécdotas y testimonios de una pasión pura sangre" (in español). Buenos Aires: LP Tango. Archived from the original on December 18, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.

[158] Echaniz, Alfredo. "Carlos Gardel - Los herederos. Exposición homenaje" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on December 16, 2013. Retrieved December 12, 2013.

[Ostuni-159] 159.0 ^159.1 Ostuni, Ricardo. "Cómo fue la vida amorosa de Carlos Gardel" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on May 16, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.

[160] "Sigue polémica sobre virilidad de Carlos Gardel" (in español). Ecuador: Hoy. May 18, 1993. Archived from the original on December 13, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.

[161] "¿Gardel era gay? Las confesiones que pusieron en duda la sexualidad del Zorzal" (in español). Rosario (Argentina): Rosario 3. July 10, 2007. Archived from the original on December 15, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.

[162] "¿Carlos Gardel homosexual?" (in español). Managua (Nicaragua): El Nuevo Diario. September 25, 2004. Archived from the original on December 16, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.

[163] "Carlos Gardel (1890-1935)" (in español). Carlos Gardel 8M. Archived from the original on December 16, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.

[164] Guadalupe Aballe. "La novia de Gardel" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on December 22, 2013. Retrieved December 25, 2013.

[165] "Entrevista a Isabel del Valle". Tiempo Argentino (in español). Buenos Aires. July 15, 1984. Isabel del Valle: ―Yo conocí a Carlos cuando Carlos ya era un gran cantante...
Periodista: ―¿Cuántos años tenía Gardel entonces? Isabel del Valle: ―Él ya tenía treinta y cuatro años y yo no había cumplido catorce... Me llevaba veinte a mí. [Isabel del Valle: ―I met Carlos when Carlos was already a great singer...
Journalist: ―How old was Gardel then? Isabel del Valle: ―He was already thirty-four and I had not yet turned fourteen... He was twenty years older than me.]

[166] Zatti, Rodolfo Omar (1990). Gardel. Su gran pasión: el turf (in español). Buenos Aires: Corregidor. ISBN 9789500505871.

[167] Marily Contreras (2005). Gardel... es un soplo la vida (in español) (1st ed.). Libros del Zorzal. pp. 93–98. ISBN 9789871081622. Record in OpenLibrary

[Lunático-168] 168.0 ^168.1 Pinsón, Néstor. "Lunático, el pingo de Gardel" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on October 22, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.

[169] "Racing dio a conocer el carnet de socio de Carlos Gardel". El Litoral (in español). January 9, 2015. Retrieved June 2, 2015.

[170] Sica Dell'Isola, Nelson (2007). El tango, el boxeo y... Gardel (in español). Montevideo: Academia del Tango del Uruguay.

[171] Ferradans, Gustavo: «Gardel y su pasión deportiva» Archived October 24, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, article in El Diario del Centro del País (Córdoba), December 12, 2009. Retrieved February 10, 2012.

[172] In Teatro Colón, Orquesta Estable. Historia y anécdotas. Osvaldo Barrios and Edmundo Piccioni, Ediciones Nuevos Tiempos. [1] Archived December 8, 2015, at the Wayback Machine

[173] Article by Eduardo Bonessi in Revista Tanguera, June 24, 1963.

[174] Carlos Gardel: a la luz de la Historia, Nelson Bayardo. Ed Fundación BankBoston, Montevideo (2000)

[175] Rivero, Edmundo (1985). Las voces, Gardel y el canto (in español). Buenos Aires: Técnica Latinoamericana.

[176] "Día del Tango" (in español). Ministerio de Educación de la Nación Argentina. Retrieved October 27, 2013.

[177] Dema, Verónica (September 20, 2012). "Fin del misterio: muestran la partida de nacimiento de Gardel" (in español). Buenos Aires: La Nación. Retrieved December 13, 2013.

[178] "Profundizando el acto de nacimiento de Carlos Gardel" (in español).

[179] Ricardo García Blaya. "El testamento de Gardel". Todo Tango (in español).

[180] "El Testamento Ológrafo de Carlos Gardel". La Gazeta (in español).

[Esteban-Invalidéz-181] 181.0 ^181.1 Esteban, Juan Carlos. "Invalidéz de la documentación uruguaya de 1920" (in español). Quién es Gardel. Archived from the original on December 15, 2013. Retrieved December 13, 2013.

[182] Rafael Sabini (June 2008). "Made in T…". Revista El Abasto, no. 99 (in español). Retrieved April 17, 2010.

[183] [2]

[184] "Copia archivada" (in español). Archived from the original on December 2, 2011. Retrieved November 29, 2011.

[GarcíaJiménez-Vida-185] García Jiménez, Francisco (1946). Vida de Carlos Gardel contada por José Razzano (in español). Buenos Aires.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

[Fernandez-Porsiempre-186] Fernández, Augusto (1973). Por siempre Gardel (in español). Buenos Aires: Latinprens.

[Esteban-Encuadre-187] Esteban, Carlos (2001). Carlos Gardel, encuadre histórico (in español). Buenos Aires: Corregidor.

[Ruffié-Esteban-Galopa-Antecedentes-188] Esteban, Juan Carlos; Galopa, Georges; Ruffié, Monique (2006). Carlos Gardel y sus antecedentes franceses (in español). Buenos Aires: Corregidor.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Ruffié-Esteban-Galopa-Punto-189] Esteban, Juan Carlos; Galopa, Georges; Ruffié, Monique (2010). Carlos Gardel, controversia y punto final (in español). Buenos Aires: Corregidor.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Esteban-Galopa-Rescate-190] Esteban, Juan Carlos; Galopa, Georges (2012). Al rescate de Carlos Gardel (in español). Buenos Aires: Corregidor.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Ruffié-Esteban-Galopa-Padre-191] Esteban, Juan Carlos; Galopa, Georges; Ruffié, Monique (2013). El padre de Gardel (in español). Buenos Aires: Proa.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Esteban-Galopa-Desamparo-192] Esteban, Juan Carlos; Galopa, Georges (2013). El desamparo del joven Gardés (in español). Buenos Aires: Prosa.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Bricheteau-193] Bricheteau, Christiane (2004). Généalogie d'un mythe ou la famille toulousaine de Carlos Gardel (in français). Toulouse: Self-published.

[Rawson-Disparen-194] Espina Rawson, Enrique (2006). Disparen sobre Gardel: toda la verdad, sólo la verdad y nada más que la verdad (in español). Buenos Aires: Editions de la Rue du Canon d'Arcole.

[Regueira-195] Regueira, Norberto Ignacio (2009). Caso Gardel (in español). Buenos Aires: Proa.

[Collier-196] Collier, Simon (1999). Carlos Gardel. Su vida, su música, su época (in español). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. ISBN 950-07-1515-5.

[Barsky-197] Barsky, Osvaldo; Barsky, Julián (2004). Gardel, la biografía (in español). Buenos Aires: Taurus. ISBN 9870400132.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Pigna-198] Pigna, Felipe (2020). Gardel (in español). Buenos Aires: Planeta. ISBN 9789504970378.

[199] Carlos Escayola [3]

[200] "Blanca Oliva de Escayola" (in español). El Uruguayo Carlos Gardel. Retrieved December 21, 2013.

[201] Iñíguez, Martina. "María Lelia Oliva, madre de Carlos Gardel. Sus otros hijos" (in español). El Uruguayo Carlos Gardel. Retrieved December 21, 2013.

[202] "Carlos Segundo Escayola, hijo del Coronel Escayola" (in español). My Heritage. Archived from the original on December 24, 2013. Retrieved December 21, 2013.

[203] «Documentos oficiales de Carlos Gardel», on the website El uruguayo Carlos Gardel.

[204] Giubellino, Gabriel (June 24, 2004). "La Justicia cierra la polémica sobre el origen de Carlos Gardel" (in español). Clarín. Retrieved August 11, 2012.

[AVLIS1-205] Silva Cabrera, Erasmo (Avlis) (1967). Carlos Gardel, ese gran desconocido (in español). Montevideo: Self-published.

[AVLIS2-206] Silva Cabrera, Erasmo (Avlis) (1975). Gardel oriental, alegato por la verdad (in español). Montevideo: El País.

[AVLIS3-207] Silva Cabrera, Erasmo (Avlis) (1985). Carlos Gardel: el hombre y su muerte (in español). Montevideo: Self-published.

[Matomoro-208] Matomoro, Blas (1971). Carlos Gardel (in español). Buenos Aires: Centro Editor de América Latina (Colección La Historia Popular nº 24).

[Bayardo-209] Bayardo, Nelson (1988). Vida y milagros de Carlos Gardel (in español). Montevideo: La República.

[Payssé-210] Payssé González, Eduardo (1990). Carlos Gardel: páginas abiertas (in español). Montevideo: Prometeo.

[Iñíguez-211] Iñíguez, Martina (2003–2013). Carlos Gardel, su biografía oculta, entre 1846 y 1912 (in español). Buenos Aires: Self-published.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)

[Ostuni-Repatriación-212] Ostuni, Ricardo (1998). Repatriación de Gardel (in español). Buenos Aires: Corregidor. ISBN 9789879561102.

[Nelson_Sica-Durazno_y_Paysandú-213] Sica dell'Isola, Nelson (2013). Gardel, Durazno y Paysandú (in español). Montevideo: Ediciones Tanguedia.

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[215] ttp://www.findesiglo.com.uy/los-secretos-del-coronel-por-susana-cabrera/ ^{[dead link]}

[216] Francisco Pracánico (music); Celedonio Flores (lyrics) (1933), Corrientes y Esmeralda (in español), Todo Tango{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[217] Flores, Rafael. "Las fotos de Silva" (in español). Todo Tango. Archived from the original on October 22, 2013. Retrieved December 13, 2013.

[218] Alexander, Abel (December 9, 2012). "Las fotografías que construyeron un mito" (in español). Clarín. Retrieved December 13, 2013.

[219] Bequer Casaballe, A. "José María Silva, el fotógrafo de Gardel" (in español). Chelo Tango. Archived from the original on December 28, 2013. Retrieved December 25, 2013.

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[221] Gardeles en Obras: Una celebración necesaria. No son horas Web - 04-03-2019

[222] "Información sobre la cantidad de sus grabaciones" (in español). Retrieved April 23, 2010.

[223] Gardel singing in Guaraní, Mosaicos Porteños

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Carlos Gardel

Born	a) Carlos^[1] b) Charles Romuald Gardes^[2] a) December 11, between 1883 and 1887^[1] b) December 11, 1890^[2] Disputed a) Tacuarembó (Uruguay)^[1] b) Toulouse (France)^[2]
Died	June 24, 1935 Medellín, Colombia
Cause of death	Plane crash
Other names	Carlitos, El Zorzal Criollo, El Morocho del Abasto, El Mago, El Rey del Tango, El Mudo, El Troesma.
Years active	1912–1935
Height	1.70 m (5 ft 7 in)

Instruments	Voice, guitar
Genres	Tango, milonga, folk music
Labels	Columbia Records, 1912 Odeón, 1917 RCA Victor, 1935
Associated acts	José Razzano, Alfredo Le Pera, José Ricardo, Guillermo Barbieri, José María Aguilar, Ángel Domingo Riverol, Juan Cruz Mateo
Voice type	Tenor until 1933 Light baritone from 1934

Signature

Anonymous

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