Upper Peru

From Hispanopedia
Upper Peru
Geographic and historical region of South America
Territory of Upper Peru.
Territories that also formed part of the denomination.
Territory that, according to Bolivian historiography, also formed part of the denomination.
ContinentAmerica
RegionSouth America
Country United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (1816–1825; 1810–1816, attached)
Spanish Empire (1776–1825):
• Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (1776–1816)
• Viceroyalty of Peru (1810–1825, nominal)
DivisionIn the territories of the provinces/intendancies of: Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, La Paz, Potosí, Puno
EcoregionAltiplano, Puna, Sub-Andean Sierras, Yungas, Amazonia
BoundariesAmazonia (N), Pacific Ocean or Western Cordillera (W), Gran Chaco and Sub-Andean Sierras (E), Altiplano (S)
Other featuresAndes Mountains, Lake Titicaca and Puna.

Upper Peru (Alto Perú) is the denomination of Río de la Plata origin used during the last decades of the rule of Spain to refer to the geographic and social environment of the west of present-day Bolivia. The term became identified with the district of the Province of Charcas, dissolved in 1782.

The denomination «provinces of Upper Peru», «territories of the region of Upper Peru» or simply «Upper Peru» is often mistakenly understood as a single subnational entity of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. As with the confusion of the «Province of Charcas» with the «provinces of Charcas» or «provinces of the Real Audiencia of Charcas», the first refers to the subnational entity that existed from 1542 until 1782; and the second refers to the provinces or intendancies dependent in judicial matters on the Real Audiencia.

Because of its geographic, ecological, historical and—especially—ethnic characteristics (an area partially inhabited by Andean peoples), the territory properly called "Upper Peru" corresponded partially to the Collao. Its region corresponds in the western part to the Andean Altiplano or Puna, populated by the Colla, Aymara (mainly in La Paz and southern Puno, Moquegua, Tacna and Arequipa) and Uru (in the basin of Lake Titicaca) ethnic groups, and by other Andean ethnic groups that, instead of Aymara, spoke Quechua as their language once the Inca conquests took place in the areas of Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Potosí and southern Peru.

During the viceregal period the corregimientos located in the Province of Charcas were under the direct government of the Viceroy of Peru; they were incorporated into the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata from 1776, and placed under the system of intendancies from 1782. With independence, in May 1810, the revolutionary junta of Buenos Aires proclaimed itself autonomous from the monarchical government of Ferdinand VII, King of Spain. From its first congress in 1813 it established deputies for the provinces of Upper Peru as an integral part of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata. Three Argentine military expeditions were sent to occupy it, but each one was defeated by troops of the Viceroy of Peru, who since July 1810 had decreed the incorporation of the intendancies of Upper Peru into his government. The Viceroy of Peru, Abascal, in July 1810, provisionally annexed the provinces of La Paz, Potosí and Chuquisaca to the Viceroyalty of Peru. While the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was in force, the provinces of Upper Peru were placed, as a basis for provisional central political and military obedience, under the Real Audiencia of Charcas, on the basis of the limits of Upper Peru, constituting themselves provisionally autonomous from the viceroyalties of Peru and the Río de la Plata. After the capitulation of the Viceroy of Peru became known, the monarchy, in July 1825, appointed as Viceroy of the Río de la Plata a Spanish caudillo who had already died in the Combat of Tumusla, over a territory limited to the provinces of Upper Peru, which in fact had been freed from royalist rule by the pro-independence forces of regional caudillos, and which was subsequently occupied by the Liberating Army under the command of Sucre, who, disobeying Simón Bolívar, proceeded to organize the deliberative meeting on the sovereignty of Upper Peru.

Origin of the term

In shades of green, the intendancies dependent in judicial matters on the Audiencia of Charcas, whose highland areas were equivalent to the region called Upper Peru, within the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, in 1783:
Intendancy of Charcas
Intendancy of La Paz
Intendancy of Potosí
Intendancy of Cochabamba

The term Upper Peru is a late denomination used to refer to the highland region of the intendancies of the northwest of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, intendancies belonging in judicial matters to the Real Audiencia of Charcas, already at the close of the viceregal period; it was not used until toward the end of the 18th century, and until then there is not a single official document or chronicle that uses this name.[1] This was already noted in 1851 by José María Dalence, who stated that «The denomination Upper Peru applied exclusively to Bolivia is new and very improper... What is certain is that neither in the Spanish laws nor in its historians is what is today Bolivia given any name other than that of Charcas».[2] The denomination Upper Peru only came into use with the creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, and gained strength as a byname between 1809 and 1810, used mainly by the «people of the Río de la Plata».[3] «The term Upper Peru was in use for some fifty years, from the time the territory was transferred to the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata until the founding of the Republic»[4] of Bolivia.

The first official denomination imposed by the Spanish Crown on the region that during the Inca period was known as Collasuyu was that of New Toledo, a governorate awarded to the conquistador Diego de Almagro, which, together with that of New Castile granted to Francisco Pizarro, received the overall name of Peru. This territorial organization, however, was short-lived, both governorates being abolished by the Royal Decree that erected the Viceroyalty of Peru in 1542, of which the Audiencia and Royal Chancery of Charcas, established in 1559, was an integral part until 1776. The Spanish historian Luis Suárez Fernández points out that the term Upper Peru did not become popular until the last third of the 18th century, partly because the upper provinces of the Peruvian Viceroyalty were detached from it to be incorporated into that of the Río de la Plata.[5] From then on and until the end of the viceregal era, this region would be popularly known as Upper Peru, and the demonym "altoperuano" is still recorded by the dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy, which defines it as "belonging or relating to Upper Peru, the territory in judicial matters of the Audiencia of Charcas, today the highland region of Bolivia".[6] Upper Peru has also been a term frequently used by some historians to refer to the viceregal stage of Bolivian history.[7]

According to the Bolivian author José María Dalence, the denomination Upper Peru corresponds to the highlands that extend from Copiapó in Chile to Quito in Ecuador.[8]

Spanish Province of Charcas

See also: Province of Charcas
See also: Real Audiencia of Charcas

There is a principal misunderstanding in the denomination of the territories when speaking of the Province of Charcas, which is confusing the Province of Charcas with the Real Audiencia of Charcas (1561–1825): the first is a subdivision of the territory of the Spanish Empire that lasted only until 1782, while the other is a judicial court of appeals, whose judicial district varied in terms of power during independence.

Initially the Province of Charcas was under the administration of the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its seat in Lima, until 1776, the date on which the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata was created, with its seat in Buenos Aires.

In 1561 the Real Audiencia of Charcas, the supreme judicial authority of the Province of Charcas, was installed in the City of La Plata (present-day Sucre); it later extended its judicial district into what would subsequently be part of the judicial district of the Real Audiencia of Buenos Aires, in response to the need to create a new regional administrative center from which the area of greatest silver production could be controlled with due care and attention. The wealth of Potosí, the establishment of the Audiencia of Charcas, the bishopric of La Plata, later archbishopric of La Plata, and the University of San Francisco Xavier of Chuquisaca gave consistency to what would be known as the Province of Charcas. The Province of Charcas was dissolved in 1782 to be succeeded by the intendancies:

The four territories were administered by governor intendants appointed by the King, and the partidos by subdelegates chosen by the Viceroy for a term of five years on the proposal of the intendants. The governments of Moxos and Chiquitos were subject to special regulations, depending in judicial matters on the Real Audiencia of Charcas and also in matters of the Royal Treasury. There were also municipal bodies with Cabildos, Ayuntamientos or Councils formed by alcaldes and regidores, who were in charge of public security, adornment, comfort and morals.

In judicial matters, in the provincial capitals the judges of first instance were the Lieutenant Governor and two alcaldes elected annually by the cabildos, and in the partidos the subdelegates. Lawsuits pursued in the four provinces could be taken on appeal or petition before the Audiencia of Charcas; the resolutions of the intendants on contentious points of police and government could also be appealed before it. The President of the Real Audiencia was the supreme authority in contentious matters. The Real Audiencia of Charcas was made up of a certain number of oidores appointed by the King, who remained in office at the will of the Monarch, as did the governor intendants.

Ecclesiastical affairs remained subordinate to the authority of the bishops, who were in turn subject, on appeal, to that of the Archbishop of La Plata. Those of the treasury and war were under the immediate inspection of the respective intendants.

In 1809, with the Chuquisaca Revolution and the creation of the Junta Tuitiva, the royalists of Upper Peru asked for help from the Viceroy of Peru, who responded by sending a force under the command of José Manuel de Goyeneche in support of the Viceroy of the Río de la Plata, whereby the monarchical government was restored.

In 1810 a provisional power of administration of territories was given to the Real Audiencia of Charcas over its judicial district, owing to the conflicts in Buenos Aires with the authorities and the adherents of the revolution in different intendancies or provinces; the judicial district of the Real Audiencia was reduced to the provinces that make up the Region of Upper Peru, in order to maintain organization and direct communication, which would be taken advantage of by both the royalists and the secessionists.

Río de la Plata provinces of Upper Peru

The Junta of Buenos Aires, after putting an end to the Córdoba counterrevolution, advanced on the intendancies of the north of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, and from its first constituent congress in 1813 provided for elected, appointed or substitute deputies as representatives of the provinces of Upper Peru in the congresses of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata:

  • Cochabamba
  • Chuquisaca
  • Potosí
  • La Paz
  • Mizque

There were eight representatives of Upper Peru in the congress of 1813 and six in the Congress of Tucumán. The effective administration of Upper Peru by Buenos Aires relied on the Army of the North (then called the Auxiliary Army), which focused on protecting and conquering the north of the viceroyalty in general, but whose official focus was to advance on the territories of Upper Peru, giving rise to the campaigns of the Auxiliary Expeditions to Upper Peru.[9] The withdrawal of the patriot armies in 1811 gave rise to the appearance in the countryside of multiple guerrilla centers, called the republiquetas of Upper Peru, whose activity reached its peak in 1814. In 1816 most of the caudillos died (Ildefonso Muñecas in Ayata, Vicente Camargo in Cinti and Manuel Ascencio Padilla in La Laguna). And after the defeat in 1817 of the expedition of Aráoz de Lamadrid, there remained in Upper Peru the guerrilla of José Miguel Lanza in Ayopaya (Cochabamba), while on the southern border of the Region of Upper Peru was Martín Miguel de Güemes, in command of the militias and guerrillas of Salta. From then on and until the defeat of Olañeta, Upper Peru and other territories bordering the region were under royalist control.[10]

Provisional Aggregation to the Viceroyalty of Peru of 1810

Proclamation of July 13, 1810, adding the provinces of Chuquisaca, Potosí, La Paz and Córdoba del Tucumán to the Viceroyalty of Peru

When the May Revolution broke out on May 25, 1810, in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, the Peruvian Viceroy Abascal declared the provisional incorporation of the provinces of Upper Peru into the Viceroyalty of Peru in a Proclamation dated July 13, 1810, adding to the Viceroyalty of Peru, in addition to Córdoba del Tucumán, three of the four provinces of Upper Peru (Chuquisaca, Potosí and La Paz). On that date he also created the army of operations of Upper Peru, at whose head he placed José Manuel de Goyeneche. However, royalist rule over Upper Peru was interrupted by the troops of Buenos Aires, with the invasion of the Auxiliary Army (or Army of the North), which was sent by the revolutionary authorities of the Río de la Plata in order to aid the provinces of Upper Peru, over the course of four campaigns. These auxiliary armies were ultimately defeated in each of them. At the same time there was added the rural presence of the country's guerrillas, in the so-called "republiquetas".[11]

On February 22, 1818, the General-in-Chief of the Royal Army of Peru appointed General Maroto interim governor and intendant of the City of La Plata and its province, as well as President of the Real Audiencia of Charcas, where he fought the rebel and patriot caudillos, keeping the territory under control. In 1823 General Andrés de Santa Cruz, at the head of an army of the Republic of Peru, managed to occupy La Paz, which he then abandoned in a hasty retreat.

The last President of the Audiencia was Antonio Vigil, appointed by Pedro Antonio Olañeta in 1824. Olañeta died one day after the Combat of Tumusla, on April 2, 1825. After learning of the capitulation of the Viceroy of Peru, the Spanish monarchy appointed Olañeta Viceroy of the Río de la Plata on July 12, 1825, without knowing that he had already died.

Brazilian intervention in Upper Peru

With a sense of great insecurity and fearing chaos owing to the wars, in June 1822 the three governors of the Spanish departments of Upper Peru, feeling threatened by the Colombian troops of Generals Antonio José de Sucre, Simón Bolívar and José María Córdoba, met in Cuiabá, capital of the captaincy of Mato Grosso, Brazil, and asked the Governor of Matto Grosso to intercede with the Prince Regent Dom Pedro (who would soon become Pedro I of Brazil and IV of Portugal) so that the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves would annex these territories of Upper Peru, in order to avoid carnage and chaos.

Immediately, the governor of Matto Grosso sent troops that were in his captaincy to Upper Peru, blocking the advance of Bolívar and Sucre, and informed Dom Pedro by letter of the dispatch of troops and of the request of the authorities of Upper Peru. Bolívar and Sucre quickly sent representatives to Rio de Janeiro, who arrived before the letter of the Governor of Matto Grosso; in this way Pedro I decided not to annex territories of Upper Peru and ordered the troops to withdraw.

Pedro I was more concerned with defeating the resistance of the Portuguese troops on Brazilian territory and guaranteeing the unity of Brazil than with annexing territories of Upper Peru for the nascent Empire of Brazil.

The letter of the Governor of Matto Grosso was received by Pedro I only in November 1822, when Brazil was already an independent nation.

The Provinces of Upper Peru

The denomination Provinces of Upper Peru refers to 5 provinces: Charcas, Cochabamba, La Paz, Potosí and Santa Cruz.

The mention of the set of these five provinces can be seen in a decree of February 9, 1825 issued by Antonio José de Sucre during the military occupation of this region by the Liberating Army:

1°.- The provinces that have been known by the name of Upper Peru shall remain dependent on the first authority of the liberating army, while an assembly of deputies from them deliberates on their fate.....
18°.- The object of the General Assembly shall be to sanction a regime of provisional government, and to decide on the fate and destinies of these provinces, as may be most convenient to their interests and happiness; and until a final, legitimate and uniform resolution, they shall remain governed in accordance with Article 1°

— Antonio José de Sucre, General-in-Chief of the United Liberating Army of Peru, Decree of February 9, 1825.

The mention of these five provinces as Upper Peru can also be seen in the Act of Independence, which was signed by their representatives:[12]

The world knows that Upper Peru has been, on the continent of America, the altar where the first blood of the free was shed and the land where the tomb of the last of the tyrants lies: that Charcas, Potosí, Cochabamba, La Paz and Santa Cruz have made constant efforts to throw off the peninsular yoke; and that the irrevocability of their vows against Spanish rule, their heroic opposition, have a thousand times halted the impetuous marches of the enemy upon regions that, without this, would have been enchained, or saved only by the last and most prodigious of efforts.

— Act of Independence, August 6, 1825.

Colombian occupation of Upper Peru

Main articles: Peruvian intervention in Bolivia of 1828 and Gran Colombia–Peru War

Between 1823 and 1828 Colombian troops occupied Upper Peru under Marshal Antonio José de Sucre, born in Cumaná, as a continuation of the Southern Campaigns; historiography considers the Republic of Bolívar (whose base was Upper Peru) a satellite state of Gran Colombia.[13][14]

The Colombian intervention arose within a context influenced by the Guayaquil Conference of 1822 and the victory in the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824, aimed at concluding the total emancipation of South America. As initial causes one could speak of the expansionism of Bolívar,[15] who planned first to establish the Federation of the Andes and then to proceed with total control of South America, as indicated in one of his letters to Francisco de Paula Santander:[16]

General Alvear... is returning immediately to Buenos Aires with great designs; he wishes to come to an agreement with me in everything and for everything; he has gone so far as to propose to me the union of the Argentine and Bolivian Republics... He will not abandon this project for anything, and even less that of calling on me to determine the destinies of the Río de la Plata; he says that without me his homeland will waver for a long time, and that, except for four individuals of the government, the whole people desires me as an angel of protection... You must make the greatest efforts so that the glory of Colombia is not incomplete and so that I am allowed to be the regulator of all of South America... Ask Congress for permission for me to remain a couple of years in the towns of the south of Peru.

The General Assembly of Deputies of the Provinces of Upper Peru of 1825 resulted in the decision of self-determination of the nascent Republic of Bolívar, in opposition to dependence on the Río de la Plata or on Peru, and in the declaration of Bolívar as Father of the Republic and Supreme Head of the State; however, the Liberator declined the presidency and handed it to Sucre, who had previously been Supreme Military Head of Peru and Superior Head of the Southern District of Gran Colombia.[17] In 1826 a constituent assembly was convened in Chuquisaca, in which two deputies from Upper Peru demanded that Sucre's troops remain in the territory until there was stability.[18] This elite did not want, among other things, Lima or Buenos Aires to exercise control over Upper Peru, and determined that the most neutral way of maintaining a certain independence and stability was by ratifying the presence of the Colombian army. In addition, Bolívar went so far as to hoist the flag of Colombia in Potosí alongside those of Argentina, Chile and Peru.[19]

Sucre was called Bolívar's puppet,[17] and he was criticized because almost all the local governors (prefects) and public employees were born in Colombia or were foreigners,[20] such as Commander Joseph León Camacho, who was born in New Granada, and other troop leaders such as Miguel Antonio Figueredo and Otto Philipp Braunn, who was in the service of Gran Colombia.

Peruvian anti-Colombianism increased each time Peru felt the threat of Bolívar's expansionist desire drawing closer. The Life-term Constitution of Peru of 1827, which endorsed Bolivarianism in Upper Peru, was annulled, and Lima demanded that the Colombian troops withdraw from the territory. One tactic used by the Peruvian government to fulfill its purpose of expelling the Colombians was persuading 3,000 Bolivarian infantrymen and 400 horsemen to mutiny, driven likewise by the lack of pay.[21] Sucre, for his part, committed himself to holding parliamentary elections in 1828, and the opponents of the control over Bolivia and defenders of the self-determination of the provinces of Upper Peru united under the slogan "Colombians, no".[21]

Consequently, the Treaty of Piquiza was signed, under which some Colombians were to leave from Arica on Peruvian transports. Finally Sucre was overthrown by the Peruvian intervention in Bolivia of 1828, after which the Gran Colombia–Peru War broke out.

Rights claimed by Argentina and Peru over Upper Peru

Both Argentina and Peru claimed Upper Peru as an integral part of their territory for historical reasons. The provinces of Upper Peru formed part of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata and, previously, these provinces were a single province called Charcas, which formed part of the Viceroyalty of Peru and later of that of the Río de la Plata; and lastly the provinces were provisionally incorporated by Viceroy Abascal into the Viceroyalty of Peru—or reincorporated, in allusion to the Province of Charcas—with the revolution of Buenos Aires.[2] The Viceroy clarified in the annexation decree that he was doing so until His Excellency the Viceroy of Buenos Aires and the other legally constituted authorities are restored to their legitimate command, since only royal authority could definitively detach territory from the Viceroyalty of Buenos Aires.[22][23]

Both the new state of Peru and that of Argentina could allege rights to its possession for the known historical reasons of Charcas having belonged first to the viceroyalty of Lima, then to that of Buenos Aires and finally to Lima again

In 1825, after the refusal of the caudillo Pedro Antonio Olañeta to join his absolutist forces to the pro-independence cause, the pro-independence army advanced under the command of Antonio José de Sucre, whose troops went on freeing the entire territory of Upper Peru from Spanish rule.

On February 9, 1825, Sucre convened a constituent assembly of the provinces of Upper Peru to settle their self-government or their belonging to Argentina or Peru. Simón Bolívar endorsed the convocation after receiving the authorization of the Peruvian State on February 23 and of the Argentine State on May 9. [3] Finally the constituent assembly gave rise to the formation of the Republic of Bolívar, which assumed sovereignty over the entire territory of Upper Peru.

The provinces of the Region of Upper Peru were officially established as an independent State on August 6 under the name of State of Upper Peru, officially annexing the Intendancy of Santa Cruz de la Sierra with its adjacent territories (Moxos, today Beni and Acre; and Chiquitos) on August 9; subsequently, the following day it adopted the name of Republic of Bolívar, and then in October that of the Republic of Bolivia.

References

  1. ↑ Barnadas, Josep M. (1989). Es muy sencillo: Llámenle Charcas (in español). La Paz: Juventud.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link) p. 59-63
  2. ↑ "J.M. Dalence, Bosquejo estadístico de Bolivia, Sucre 1851, p. 2" (in español). Retrieved September 2, 2011.
  3. ↑ "Esther Aillón Soria, De Charcas/Alto Perú a la República de Bolívar, Bolivia. Trayectorias de la identidad boliviana, p. 7" (PDF) (in español). Archived from the original (PDF) on December 13, 2011. Retrieved September 2, 2011.
  4. ↑ Crespo Rodas, Alberto (1981). El ejército de San Martín y las guerrillas del Alto Perú (in español). La Paz. p. 379
  5. ↑ Luis Suárez Fernández, Demetrio Ramos Pérez; "Historia general de España y América", Volumen 9, Parte 2, pág. 391
  6. ↑ Diccionario de la Lengua Española - Vigésima segunda edición
  7. ↑ see the bibliography on the subject
  8. ↑ Bosquejo estadístico de Bolivia. Cuadro 1°, pág. 1 y 2. Autor: José María Dalence
  9. ↑ Ni con Lima ni con Buenos Aires: la formación de un estado nacional en Charcas. pp. 378-379. Volumen 248 de Travaux de l'I.F.E.A. Volumen 248 de Travaux de l'Institut français d'études andines. Autor: José Luis Roca. Editor: Plural Editores, 2007, La Paz - Bolivia. ISBN 99954-1-076-1, 9789995410766 [1]
  10. ↑ La construcción de Argentina y Bolivia en los Andes Meridionales. Pág 125. [dead link]
  11. ↑ La construcción de Argentina y Bolivia en los Andes Meridionales [dead link]
  12. ↑ "ACTA DE INDEPENDENCIA DE LAS PROVINCIAS DEL ALTO PERÚ" (PDF) (in español). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  13. ↑ "Copia archivada" (in español). Archived from the original on August 22, 2019. Retrieved August 22, 2019.
  14. ↑ Republic of Bolívar
  15. ↑ Guerrero, 2010. SIMÓN BOLÍVAR Y LOS CONFLICTOS TERRITORIALES ENTRE COLOMBIA Y PERÚ, 1820-1829. Osorno, vol .2, n.º 7, pp. 39-54
  16. ↑ Cartas Santander-Bolívar. 1813-1829, tomo III, Biblioteca de la Presidencia de la República, Bogotá, 1988, 140.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Roca, 2007
  18. ↑ Morote, 2007
  19. ↑ Bushnell, 2002, p.136
  20. ↑ Dávalos, 1926
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Basadre, 1998
  22. ↑ Historia de España en sus documentos: siglo XIX, Volumen 5, pág. 80. Historia. Serie Mayo Series. Historia (Cátedra).: Serie mayor. Autor: Fernando Díaz-Plaja. Editor: Fernando Díaz-Plaja. Compilado por Fernando Díaz-Plaja. Editor: Cátedra, 1983. ISBN 84-376-0390-0, 9788437603902
  23. ↑ Documentos para la historia argentina, Volúmenes 39-41, pág. 182. Autor: Universidad de Buenos Aires. Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas. Publicado en 1965

Bibliography

  • BARNADAS Josep M., Charcas (1535-1565). orígenes históricos de una sociedad colonial, La Paz 1973.
  • Josep María Barnadas, Es muy sencillo: llámenle Charcas. Sobre el problema de los antecedentes coloniales de Bolivia y de su histórica denominación, La Paz 1989.
  • DALENCE José María, Bosquejo estadístico de Bolivia, Sucre 1851.
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