Cuauhtémoc

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For other uses, see Cuauhtémoc (disambiguation).
Cuauhtémoc
Huey tlatoani
(Emperor of the Aztecs)
ReignJanuary 25, 1521 – 1525
Coronation1521
PredecessorCuitláhuac
SuccessorTlacotzin (tlatoani appointed by the Spaniards)
BornJuly 14, 1496
Tenochtitlan,
Mexica Empire
DiedFebruary 28, 1525 (aged 28)
Hibueras
FatherAhuízotl
MotherIzelcoatzin

Cuauhtémoc (Nahuatl: Cuāuhtēmoc, 'the eagle alighted'; from cuāuhtli 'eagle' and tēmoc 'descended, alighted') (1496–1525), known to the Spanish conquistadors as Guatemuz,[1] was the last Mexica tlatoani of Mexico-Tenochtitlan. He assumed power in 1520, one year before the taking of Tenochtitlan by Hernán Cortés and his troops.

The name Cuāuhtémōc literally means 'Eagle that descended (alighted)' (Nahuatl cuāuh(-tli) 'eagle', temō- 'to descend', -c PAST). The honorific form of Cuāuhtémōc is Cuāuhtémōctzīn (the suffix -tzīn is used to denote a dignity similar to "Don" or "Señor" in Spanish).

Cuāuhtémōc, son of Ahuizotl and cousin of Moctezuma Xocoyotzin and, Tecuichpo (Nahuatl, 'cotton flake') upon her reaching marriageable age. When he assumed power, the conquistadors had already been expelled from Tenochtitlan, but the city was devastated by hunger, smallpox, and the lack of drinking water. Cuauhtémoc arrived at this moment after having been tlacatlecutli (chief of arms) of the resistance to the conquistadors, since from the death of Moctezuma prior to the Noche Triste, he is identified as the military leader of the Mexica.

Coronation

After the death of Cuitláhuac, Cuauhtémoc was elected Huey tlatoani in the month of February[2] of 1521, during Izcalli, which is the last month of the year "2 tecpatl".[3]

Conduct during the Conquest

Cuauhtémoc set himself the task of reorganizing the Mexica army, rebuilding the city and fortifying it for the war against the Spaniards, since he supposed that they would return to fight against the Mexica. He sent ambassadors to all the peoples requesting allies, reducing their tributes and even eliminating them for some.

The Spaniards returned one year after having been expelled, and with them came a contingent of more than one hundred thousand native allies,[4] most of them Tlaxcaltecs, historically enemies of the Mexica.

After besieging Tenochtitlan for 90 days,[5] on August 13, 1521, the Spaniards, who were commanded by Hernán Cortés, captured him in Tlatelolco.

Capture

According to Bernal Díaz del Castillo in his Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de la Nueva España, Cuauhtémoc was captured when the canoe in which he, his family and his closest warriors were fleeing from Tenochtitlan was overtaken by a Spanish brigantine piloted by García Holguín. Cuauhtémoc demanded to be taken before "Malinche" (as the Mexica called Cortés, this being a patronymic term derived from Malintzin or Doña Marina, his Indigenous translator).[6][7]

Imprisonment of Guatimocín, Last Emperor of Mexico, by Carlos Esquivel y Rivas. 1854. (Museo del Prado, Madrid).

Once in his presence, pointing to the dagger the conquistador carried at his belt, he asked him to kill him with it, since, not having been able to defend his city and his vassals, he preferred to die at the hands of the invader. Among Mexica warriors, such as Cuauhtémoc himself, it was assumed that one defeated and captured by the enemy should accept dying in sacrifice to the gods so as to attain as a final destiny accompanying the sun on its daily journey; therefore Cuauhtémoc's request to Cortés may not have been simply a request for execution, but the interpretation of the event by the European chroniclers, who did not consider the norms of honor of the Indigenous armies, prevails. This event was described by Hernán Cortés himself in his third letter of relation to Charles I of Spain:

…he came up to me and told me in his language that he had already done everything that on his part he was obliged to do to defend himself and his people until coming to that state, that now I should do with him whatever I wished; and he put his hand on a dagger I had, telling me to stab him and kill him…

— Third letter of relation, Hernán Cortés[8]

According to the chronicler Francisco López de Gómara:

…Cuauhtémoc then laid hand on Cortés's dagger, and said to him: "I have already done all in my power to defend myself and my people, and what I was obliged to do so as not to come to such a state and place as I am in; and since you can now do with me what you will, kill me, for that is best"..

— Historia de la Conquista de México[9]

Bernal Díaz del Castillo, in his Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España, described the event as follows:

.."Lord Malinche: I have already done what I am obliged to do in defense of my city and vassals, and I can do no more, and since I come by force and as a prisoner before your person and power, take that dagger you have at your belt and kill me with it at once." (and Guatemuz himself was about to lay hand on it)

— Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España[10]

The importance that the Spaniards gave to the seizure of Cuauhtémoc, Mexica Tlatoani, can be gauged by the dispute between García Holguín and Gonzalo de Sandoval to claim the merit of the capture, which they already saw reflected in their coats of arms, as the head of Cuauhtémoc was, according to Madariaga, on the coat of arms of Cortés himself.[11]

Bernal Díaz del Castillo narrates in detail how distrust spread among the Spaniards, and how the officials of the Royal Treasury, and above all the Treasurer Julián de Alderete, ordered[12] that Cuauhtémoc and Tetlepanquetzaltzin be tortured. The books of Díaz del Castillo and López de Gómara and the accusations later made against Cortés in his residency trial agree that they were tortured by soaking their feet and hands in oil and burning them.[13] According to Bernal, Cuauhtémoc confessed that four days before "they seized him they threw into the lagoon both the gold and the cannons and the muskets that they had taken from Cortés at the end, and they went to where Guatemuz pointed, to the houses in which he used to live", from where the Spaniards took "from a sort of large pool of water a sun of gold like the one Montezuma gave us".[13]

Later sources attributed to Cuauhtémoc, without any support, a complete stoicism displayed in that ordeal. The book written by López de Gómara relates that the "lord" who accompanied him in the torture asked his permission to speak and stop the torment, at which Cuauhtémoc looked at him with anger and treated him with contempt, saying: «whether he was in some delight or bath».[14] A historical novel written by Eligio Ancona in 1870 popularized the variant "Am I perhaps on a bed of roses?".[15]

After the episode of the torture, Cuauhtémoc was left crippled and limped; Tetlepanquetzaltzin's wounds were worse.[16] The physician Cristóbal de Ojeda was the one who healed the tlatoani's wounds. Years later the physician declared, during Cortés's residency trial, that in the incident Cuauhtémoc was tormented "by burning his feet and hands".[17] The huey tlatoani surprisingly returns to his role as a respected and well-treated, but captive, Mexica noble, whose prestige and authority Cortés uses for the government of the vanquished.

Like all the newly conquered subjects, an attempt was made to convert him to Christianity, but they only succeeded on the day they put him to death.[18] If we follow Héctor Pérez Martínez, his Catholic name would have been Hernando de Alvarado Cuauhtémoc; other sources cite only Hernando or Fernando. Converts received the name of their godparents, and Pérez Martínez supposes that Cuauhtémoc's were Hernán Cortés himself and Pedro de Alvarado.

Expedition to the Hibueras and death of Cuauhtémoc

In 1524, Cortés set out on a journey to the Hibueras (Honduras), in search of one of his captains, Cristóbal de Olid. It was not a rescue journey, but one of pursuit: Cortés had evidence that Cristóbal de Olid might have conspired with his old enemy, the Governor of Cuba Diego Velázquez.

The expedition, enormous and courtly, included everything from minstrels (wind musicians of the period) to a physician and a surgeon, as well as sumptuous tableware and cutlery, and a herd of pigs closing the procession to ensure provisioning. The military contingent was, as happened throughout the conquest, overwhelmingly much more Indigenous than Spanish, and in this expedition in particular, more Aztec than Tlaxcaltec or of other peoples. It is therefore not surprising that several Aztec notables traveled on the expedition, surely as military commanders of that troop, and possibly also as ambassadors and facilitators of relations with the peoples along the route: Cuauhtémoc and Tetlepanquetzal were two of them.

After a year of travel, testimonies reached Cortés that Cuauhtémoc might be conspiring against the Spaniards, determined to attack them. According to Cortés, in his fifth letter of relation, a Mexicalcingo ("honorable citizen of this city of Temixtitlan") approached the Spanish Captain to tell him a story of a conspiracy by Cuauhtémoc, which would begin with the assassination of Cortés, continue with a rebellion against the Spaniards throughout the country, and end with the blockade of Mexico... "this done, they would place strong garrisons of people in all the seaports so that no ship that came would escape them".

Neither the place nor the exact date of Cuauhtémoc's death is known with certainty. The two eyewitnesses of the events who left written testimonies, Hernán Cortés and Bernal Díaz del Castillo, did not specify either piece of information.[19]

Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, a historian of New Spain of the 17th century, vouches for the reality of the conspiracy. Diego López de Cogolludo relates in his work: "Quauhtemoc confessed it to be so, as the others had said; but that he was not the originator of that consultation, nor did he know whether all were in it or whether it would be carried out, because he never had the intention of going through with it, and that only the aforementioned conversation had taken place. Without further proofs, says Bernal Díaz, Don Hernando Cortés ordered Cuauhtemoc to be hanged, and the lord of Tacuba, who was his cousin; but the General History of Herrera says that sentence was given through a judicial process, and Cuauhtemoc, Couanoctzin and Tetepanquetzal were sentenced to be hanged."

… being about to hang Cuauhtemoc, he said these words: "O Captain Malinche, for days I had understood, I had recognized your false words: that you were to give me this death, since I did not give it to myself when you surrendered yourself in my city of Mexico; why do you kill me without justice?" …

— Conquista de Yucatán, Diego López de Cogolludo.[20]

Legacy

Cuauhtémoc has become one of the figures most recognized by a part of Mexican historiography, which has elevated him to national hero. In every corner of Mexico his name is used in toponymy and onomastics, and his imagined effigy appears on monuments, which allude to his courage in defeat, in asking for death by Cortés's dagger, or in the torment, in demanding stoicism from his companions in torture.

From the 19th century his figure was used for nationalist purposes, the foremost example being the inauguration of the Monument to Cuauhtémoc, the work of Miguel Noreña, during the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz.

On February 28 of each year, the Mexican flag flies at half-mast throughout the country, commemorating his death.

The remains

In 1949 the archaeologist Eulalia Guzmán, by means of falsification of data and an incorrect archaeological methodology,[21][22] discovered human remains that she attributed to Cuauhtémoc beneath the floor of the church of the town of Ixcateopan de Cuauhtémoc —a name it received in 1950— in the state of Guerrero. In addition, the discovery was based on a series of 16th-century documents kept in the same town by the Juárez family which would prove the transfer of the remains from southeastern Mexico to Ixcateopan, some of them even bearing the signature of Motolinía.[21]

The event was precipitated by official pressure.[21] On September 26, 1949, the archaeologist announced the discovery in the atrium of the church. The following day the then Governor Baltazar R. Leyva Mancilla endorsed it.[21] From then on there were voices for and against the discovery. The criminologist Alfonso Quiroz Cuarón was the first to contradict Guzmán that same year,[21] to which the archaeologist responded with a commission to support her truth, made up of José Gómez Robleda, Luis Chávez Orozco, José A. Cuevas, Alejandro von Wutheneau, Carlos Graef Fernández and Marcos Moshinsky.[21] Even the painter Diego Rivera advocated the authenticity of the remains and accused those who contradicted the version of being traitors.[21] In 1950 it was ruled that there was no scientific evidence to determine that the remains belonged to the tlatoani. The State Committee for the Alliance of Indigenous Communities of the State of Guerrero expressed its indignation at the ruling, and the commission determined that the remains and the documentary sources that allegedly supported their authenticity could leave the door open to future investigations.

In 1976 the controversy was reopened and a multidisciplinary commission of physical and social anthropology, ethnohistory and archaeology was formed, which analyzed once again all the available evidence.[22] The then Governor of the state of Guerrero, Rubén Figueroa Figueroa, declared during the team's visit:

"Everything falls by its own weight. That is why we hope that you do your work soon and say that Cuauhtémoc is here, so that you can return to the capital, but with your heads…"

— Rubén Figueroa, former Governor of Guerrero.[23]

The researchers determined that all the evidence justifying the findings had been manipulated.[22] The documents claimed to be from the 16th century were in reality forgeries made in the 19th century by Florentino Juárez. The pre-Hispanic remains in Ixcateopan had no relation whatsoever with Mexico-Tenochtitlan, nor is there conclusive evidence of any relation with the tlatoani.[22] Finally, the remains claimed to be Cuauhtémoc's, which continue to be exhibited as such in the church of Ixcateopan, are in reality from eight different persons, even differing in period. The skull is that of a mestizo woman and is not from the 16th century.[22] The final report of the commission ruled as follows:

There is no scientific basis to support the claim that the remains found on September 26, 1949, in the church of Santa María de la Asunción, Ichcateopan, Guerrero, are those of Cuauhtémoc, the last emperor of the Mexica and heroic defender of Mexico-Tenochtitlan

— Matos: 1980, cited by Johnson, 2014[22]

As Anne W. Johnson points out, "the controversy surrounding the remains excavated in Ixcateopan in 1949 involved rival ideologies about the history and essence of the Mexican people, local, state and national interests, and philosophical and methodological conflicts between antagonistic visions of the past".[22] Although this evidence proves the contrary, hundreds of people make a pilgrimage to Ixcateopan every year, the town itself retains the appellation of Cuauhtémoc, and there are even official commemorative events.[22]

Monuments to Cuauhtémoc

There are various monuments dedicated to Cuauhtémoc, among them those in:

ARM Cuauhtémoc (BE-01)

The training ship of the Mexican Navy was named in his honor; the cadets of the Heroic Naval Military School are trained aboard it.

Opera

Cuauhtémoc is a character in the following operas:

Numismatics

He has been portrayed on various coins.

See also

Notes and references

  1. ↑ Bernal del Castillo, "Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de la Nueva España"
  2. ↑ Crónica Mexicayotl. Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc, p. 163
  3. ↑ El Calendario de Quetzalcoatl, Segunda Edición. Oscar Ayotzintli, pp. 31, 67
  4. ↑ Clavijero, Francisco Javier (2003). Luis González y González; Elías Trabulse (ed.). Historia antigua de México (in español) (Facsimile of the Ackermann edition of 1826 ed.). Puebla: Gobierno del Estado de Puebla. Secretaría de Cultura. p. 166. ISBN 968-6871-22-5. Retrieved March 13, 2011.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  5. ↑ López de Gómara, Francisco (1552) Historia de la conquista de México, ch. CXLIV, pp. 206–207, "La toma de México". Porrúa ed. ISBN 970-07-7021-4: "The siege lasted three months. He had in it two hundred thousand men, nine hundred Spaniards, eighty horses, seventeen pieces of artillery, thirteen brigantines and six thousand boats. On his side up to fifty Spaniards and six horses died, and not many Indians. Of the enemies one hundred thousand died, and according to what others say, very many more; but I do not count those killed by hunger and pestilence."
    Díaz del Castillo, Bernal (1568) Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España, ch. CLVI, p. 369, Porrúa ed. ISBN 978-970-07-7331-0: "…and I say this to the purpose because during all the ninety-three days that we were over this city, night and day some Mexican captains gave so many shouts and cries, alerting the squadrons and warriors who were to do battle on the causeways…"
  6. ↑ Díaz del Castillo, Bernal; Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España, online text, Cervantes Virtual: ..they called Cortés "Malinche", and so I shall name him from here on: "Malinche", in all the talks we had with any Indians, both of this province and of the city of Mexico, and I shall not name him Cortés except where it is fitting..
  7. ↑ Vázquez Chamorro, Germán (2003) La conquista de Tenochtitlan, Crónicas de América collection, ISBN 84-492-0367-8, footnote: cfr. supra, p. 78, note 29 The Mexicanism Malinche derives from the Aztec word Malintzīneh, a noun formed with the Nahuatlized root of the Castilian patronymic Marina (the Mexicans pronounced r as l) and two suffixes: the reverential -tzīn and the possessive -eh. The correct translation of Malintzine would be "Master of Doña Marina", which is why in the orthography of the 16th century the texts use the term Malinche to refer to Hernán Cortés
  8. ↑ Hernández Sánchez-Barba (2003) Cartas de Relación de Hernán Cortés, Dastin, ISBN 84-492-0352-X
  9. ↑ López de Gómara, Francisco (1552) Historia de la conquista de México, ch. CXLIII, "La prisión de Cuauhtémoc". Porrúa ed. ISBN 970-07-7021-4
  10. ↑ Díaz del Castillo, Bernal (1568) Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España, ch. CLVI, p. 276, online text, Cervantes Virtual
  11. ↑ Madariaga, Salvador de. Hernán Cortés — Grandes biografías. Planeta de Agostini, Madrid 1995, ISBN 84-395-3817-0
  12. ↑ Martínez, José Luis. Hernán Cortés. Mexico, Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1992.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Ibid.
  14. ↑ López de Gómara, Francisco (1552) Historia de la conquista de México, ch. CXLVI, "Como dieron tormento a Cuahutimoc para saber del tesoro". Porrúa ed. ISBN 970-07-7021-4
  15. ↑ Ancona, Eligio (1870) Los mártires del Anáhuac, p. 344, Barcelona, Planeta DeAgostini ed. (2004), ISBN 970-726-215-X
  16. ↑ Thomas, Hugh (1993) La conquista de México, ch. 36, p. 601, Mexico, Planeta ed., ISBN 970-690-163-9
  17. ↑ García Icazbalceta, Joaquín, Op. cit. p. 314: "Until now it had been understood that the fire had been applied to his feet only. Doctor Ojeda was a perpetual alderman of Mexico; he took office on August 3, 1526.."
  18. ↑ Diego López de Cogolludo, "Conquista de Yucatán", ch. XV, Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies Inc., online text .."They died as Christians, asking our religious and the one of the Merced, who went encouraging and helping them, to commend them to God; for Bernal Díaz says that, for Indians, they were good Christians and believed well and truly our Holy Faith"...
  19. ↑ Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo. "La muerte de Cuauhtémoc". México Desconocido (in español).
  20. ↑ Diego López de Cogolludo, "Conquista de Yucatán", ch. XV, Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies Inc., online text
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 Rueda, Salvador (1997–1998). "De conspiradores y mitógrafos: entre el mito, la historia y el hecho estético" (PDF). Historias (in español) (39): 17–26. Retrieved February 28, 2015.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7 Johnson, Anne W. (October 22, 2013). "EL PODER DE LOS HUESOS: PEREGRINAJE E IDENTIDAD EN IXCATEOPAN DE CUAUHTÉMOC, GUERRERO". Anales de Antropología (in español). 48-II. Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas. ISSN 0185-1225.
  23. ↑ Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo. "Ichcateopan y los restos de Cuauhtémoc" in Arqueología Mexicana, volume 82. Mexico, November–December 2006.
  24. ↑ http://www.municipiocuauhtemoc.gob.mx/

Bibliography

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