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Salvador de Madariaga

From Hispanopedia

Salvador de Madariaga
Born(1886-07-23)July 23, 1886
La Coruña (Spain)
DiedDecember 14, 1978(1978-12-14) (aged 92)
Locarno (Switzerland)
Signature

Salvador de Madariaga y Rojo (La Coruña, July 23, 1886 – Locarno, December 14, 1978) was a Spanish diplomat and writer, Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts and of Justice of the Second Republic in 1934.

He also worked at the League of Nations as head of staff of the Disarmament Section (1922–1927), and later represented the Second Spanish Republic as ambassador in Washington (1931) and Paris (1932–1934), and as Spanish delegate to the Assembly of the League of Nations.[1]

A man of liberal and pro-European thought, he went into exile in the United Kingdom after the outbreak of the civil war. During the Cold War he was an active militant against Soviet communism, as well as an opponent of the Francoist dictatorship; he only returned to Spain after the death of Franco.

A full member of the Royal Spanish Academy and of the Royal Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, as a writer he cultivated various genres: historical and political essay, literary criticism, the novel, biography and poetry.

Biography

He was born on July 23, 1886, in the Galician city of La Coruña,[2][3][lower-alpha 1] into a large family—he had ten siblings—with a long military tradition,[5][6] the son of Colonel Darío José de Madariaga[lower-alpha 2] and of María Ascensión Rojo;[6] his father would send him to France to study engineering around 1900.[7] He studied at the Collège Chaptal, the École polytechnique and the École nationale supérieure des mines in Paris,[10][7][11] until he graduated in 1911.[7] Already during his years of training in France he had felt that his vocation leaned toward literary studies, but paternal pressure made him continue studying until he obtained his engineering degree; he came to regard his work and his vocation as "declared enemies".[12]

After graduating, he returned to Spain, working as an engineer for the Compañía de Ferrocarriles del Norte and as a columnist in Madrid.[13] In 1912 he married the Scotswoman Constance Archibald[14] and in 1914 he joined the League for Political Education, whose members also included Ortega y Gasset, Azaña, Fernando de los Ríos, Américo Castro, Araquistáin, Luis Bello and Ramiro de Maeztu.[15][14] Around this time he began his postal correspondence with Miguel de Unamuno, with whom he maintained a relationship of esteem and respect.[16] During the First World War, he lived in the United Kingdom, where he wrote pro-Allied propaganda in Spanish commissioned by the British Foreign Office, thanks to a recommendation from Araquistáin.[14]

Salvador de Madariaga with the Count of Romanones in 1925

In March 1920 his brother Emilio, a sculptor, died at only thirty-three years of age.[17] At the end of the war, Madariaga worked as a mining engineer in Spain, in addition to writing for the literary supplement of the Times and for the Manchester Guardian,[14] and in 1921 he obtained a permanent post at the League of Nations—after attending a conference organized by it as a temporary adviser, at which he reportedly impressed with his abilities. In later years he continued to rise within the organization, until leaving it in 1927[18][lower-alpha 3] to become, in 1928, professor of Spanish language at the University of Oxford, a post he held for three years and which he left upon discovering that he lacked a vocation for it.[21]

In May 1931[22] the provisional government of the Republic appointed him, without prior notice, ambassador of Spain to the United States,[23][24] and in the general elections of that same year, in June, he was elected deputy for La Coruña with the FRG/ORGA, again without his consent,[25] with a total of 68,783 votes.[26] During the republican period he also returned to the League of Nations[27] and served as ambassador to France (1932–1934)[22] and as Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts and Minister of Justice in the third Government of Alejandro Lerroux (1934).[25] In those same years, together with other prominent European intellectuals, he formed the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation, an advisory organization of the League of Nations whose aim was to promote international exchange among scientists, researchers, professors, artists and intellectuals.[28]

In the context of the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, Madariaga held a position opposed to Japanese interests, which earned him the nickname "Don Quijote de la Manchuria" ("Don Quixote of Manchuria"), although the plans to establish international arbitration would end in failure;[29][30][31] and when the Italian invasion of Ethiopia took place, he positioned himself against Mussolini's expansionist interests.[32] During the second republican biennium, he criticized both the workers' insurrection in Asturias in 1934 and the imprisonment of Azaña in Barcelona;[33] his relationship with the latter was ambivalent: Madariaga professed admiration for him, but this was not reciprocated by Azaña.[34]

The outbreak of the civil war caught him in Toledo,[35] after which he went into exile in the United Kingdom, having first passed through Geneva.[36] That year he was one of the nominees for the Nobel Peace Prize, proposed by the Danish historian and politician Peter Rochegune Munch.[lower-alpha 4] During the conflict, Madariaga corresponded with the British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden with the aim of securing an intervention by the United Kingdom in the conflict that would lead to a peace agreement, without success.[40] There he became an opponent of the Francoist military dictatorship.[2] In the forties and fifties, he worked actively to establish contact among the more moderate groups of the anti-Franco opposition, especially the monarchist sector represented by José María Gil-Robles and the socialist one of Indalecio Prieto.[41] In April 1947 he took part in the Mont Pèlerin meeting in Switzerland, together with Milton Friedman, Karl Popper, Lionel Robbins, Ludwig von Mises, Walter Lippman and Michael Polanyi, among others, from which the so-called Mont Pelerin Society would emerge, a group that would fight against Keynesianism and the welfare state.[42] He was also the first President of the Liberal International,[43][44] one of the attendees at the Hague Congress of 1948[45] and a co-founder of the College of Europe in the Belgian city of Bruges.[43] In 1952 he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature[lower-alpha 5] and, once again, for the Peace Prize.[37][38][lower-alpha 6] He was honorary president of the magazine Ibérica, where he published numerous articles,[47] and of the Congress for Cultural Freedom,[48] which published the magazine Cuadernos.[47]

Hague Congress of 1948.
Madariaga and José Antonio Jáuregui in 1972, in Oxford.

In 1962 he was one of the main organizers of the meeting of various anti-Franco sectors held within the framework of the Congress of the European Movement in Munich, a meeting that the regime dubbed the "Contubernio de Múnich".[49][11][50] In 1968 he won the "Mariano de Cavia Prize" for the article "La espada y el espíritu";[51][52][53] in November 1970,[6] already eighty-four years old, he married for a second time[lower-alpha 7] his secretary Emilia Rauman Szeleky,[lower-alpha 8] of Hungarian origin,[55][54] and in 1973 he received the Charlemagne Prize for "a life devoted to a European-minded work and thought of excellent stamp".[56] A resident of Switzerland from 1972 until his death,[57] after the death of Franco he returned to Spain in 1976, formally taking up his seat in the Royal Spanish Academy—with an address titled De la belleza de la ciencia—,[58] to which he had been elected in May 1936,[59] and in the Royal Academy of Moral and Political Sciences.[lower-alpha 9] After receiving the Grand Cross of Alfonso X the Wise in July 1978,[62] he died on December 14 of that same year in the Swiss city of Locarno.[2] On October 13, 1991, his ashes, together with those of his wife, were scattered on the waters of the Atlantic Ocean off his native city, La Coruña.[63]

Salvador de Madariaga had two daughters with the Scotswoman Constance Archibald: Nieves[lower-alpha 10] and Isabel de Madariaga.[lower-alpha 11] He was also the uncle of the historian María Rosa de Madariaga[66] and the great-uncle of the socialist politicians Luis and Javier Solana Madariaga.[67]

Thought

Madariaga: a Spaniard certainly misunderstood. A different Spaniard. A Spaniard of a Spain that never was, that never could be.

— Ricardo García Cárcel (García Cárcel 2003b, p. 3)[68]

Belonging to the so-called "Generation of '14",[69] Madariaga stated in A la orilla del río de los sucesos that "as the liberal that I am, I give minimal importance to the economic, medium importance to the political and maximum importance to the human"[15][lower-alpha 12] and would describe himself as an "organicist liberal".[71] An admirer of the Institución Libre de Enseñanza,[15] he was placed by Gonzalo Fernández de la Mora within an "anti-utilitarian humanism".[72]

An Anglophile,[2] he was considered "one of the forerunners of the idea of Europe"[73] and defended a broad and inclusive conception of what should territorially form part of it, understanding it in any case more as an "idea" than as a geographical continent; Europe, organized on a federalist model, should moreover have its own independent voice in the international context in the face of the hegemonic role of the United States and the Soviet Union.[74] Julián Gorkin highlighted Madariaga's "constructive Europeanism".[75]

Neither left nor right. I am an intellectual worker; I see the one and the other. That is why I have two eyes. The leftist is blind in the right eye; the rightist is blind in the left. Fortunately, both my eyes see well.

— Salvador de Madariaga (Madariaga 1971, p. 11)[76]

Madariaga, an anti-communist,[77] "frontally" opposed to Marxist socialism,[78] anti-Francoist[79][80] and described as a "moderate classical liberal",[81] put forward in Anarquía o jerarquía a concept called "unanimous organic democracy", in which the State would not tolerate strikes or trade unions and would restrict the right to vote.[82] After the end of the Second World War he defended monarchist positions for Spain—embodied in the figure of Juan de Borbón—and positions contrary to universal suffrage.[43][83] His thought, which was criticized by the Spanish left during the Second Republic,[84] has been described by Pedro Carlos González Cuevas as elitist and bourgeois.[78] According to Herbert R. Southworth, Ricardo de la Cierva reportedly proposed Madariaga—whose attacks on various socialist politicians were used as propaganda by the regime—[85][86] and José Antonio Primo de Rivera as the main inspirers of Franco's political program.[85]

His ideas in favor of peace have been highlighted,[87] as well as his defense, during the discussion of the Constitution of 1931, of a "renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy"—which would end up constituting the sixth article of the document—,[25][88] and his attempts to achieve a peace arbitrated by the United Kingdom for the civil war,[40] in addition to his having been proposed for the corresponding Nobel Prize on two occasions,[38] although some authors describe him as a "non-pacifist internationalist";[89] regarding de Madariaga, who supported an "invasion" of communist Cuba,[90] Juan Carlos Pereira points out that the evolution of his thought would have entailed the abandonment of some of his more pacifist ideas.[91] Paul Preston highlighted idealistic and "quixotic" traits in Madariaga,[92] and his works revealed a certain nostalgia for the era of the Spanish Empire.[93]

Works

Plaque in memory of Madariaga in Oxford.
Monument to Salvador de Madariaga in his native city.

Madariaga published notable essays on the history of Spain and its role in the world. He wrote books about Don Quixote, Christopher Columbus and the history of Hispanic America;[94] in his work he used French, Spanish and English.[81] He had a notable career as a columnist,[95] contributing before the outbreak of the civil war to publications such as España, El Imparcial, La Publicidad, El Sol, La Pluma, Ahora and La Vanguardia,[96] in addition to working in radio, already in exile, with the regular program Temas de actualidad on the BBC and on Radio Paris.[97] In his facet as a historian, García Cárcel describes him as an "outsider", with his works in this field attributable to a methodology characteristic of the essay.[98]

His first published book was La guerra desde Londres,[99] about the First World War, which appeared around 1917,[100] and in which he criticized the German Empire, depicting it as a paradigm of authoritarianism and contrasting it with the "freedom" defended by the Allies.[99] He later wrote The genius of Spain, published in 1923 in English and in 1924 in Spanish with the title Semblanzas literarias.[101] During his time as a professor at Oxford, at the end of the 1920s, he wrote an essay on the psychology of nations,[102] published in English in 1928 by Oxford University Press under the title Englishmen, Frenchmen, Spaniards[103] and in Spanish in 1929 as Ingleses, franceses, españoles by Espasa-Calpe.[104][100][lower-alpha 13] In this work Madariaga identified the English character with "will", the French with "intelligence" and the Spanish with "passion".[106]

Caricatured by Sancha (Nuevo Mundo, 1920)

Of the original 1930 edition of Spain,[107] which was translated into Spanish as España. Ensayo de historia contemporánea, Roger B. Merriman criticized numerous historical inaccuracies and gross errors in the narration of past events, but assessed positively its description of the country's most recent situation, the main objective of the work.[108] Numerous new editions were published, with a substantial expansion in the second, of 1943, which covered the events of the Second Republic and the Civil War; by 1958 its length had come to double that of the original,[107][109] but the opening section of the work did not undergo many changes.[110] Praised by Payne, who considered it in 1958 "the most complete analysis of the recent history of Spain to date",[111] Madariaga reportedly sought to cast a more favorable light on the period of the Bourbon Restoration,[110] in addition to suggesting that the Government of the Second Republic, after the military uprising of 1936, should have let the rebel military take power without offering resistance, since the regime they established would have ended up giving way to a liberal parliamentary democracy.[112][110]

Salvador de Madariaga in a bust made by his brother Emilio

In 1935 he published Anarquía o jerarquía, an essay in which he proposed a society stratified into three levels: a lower class—without the right to active citizenship and characterized by its lack of individual responsibility—, the bourgeoisie and the aristocracy.[113][114] In it there was a departure from democratic principles in pursuit of a "hierarchical organic democracy",[113][115] a model that was criticized by the American sociologist Lewis Mumford.[115] This work was analyzed by Gonzalo Fernández de la Mora in Los teóricos izquierdistas de la democracia orgánica, of 1985, where he reportedly called it "his most valuable book of thought";[116] Madariaga would later take up part of the theses of Anarquía o jerarquía in Democracy versus Liberty? The Faith of a Liberal Heretic,[117][118] published in 1958.[119]

In his biography of Christopher Columbus, published in both Spanish[100] and English in 1940,[120] faced with the traditional debate over the discoverer's origin, Madariaga proposed that he had been born in Genoa,[120] a descendant of a family of Jews of Catalan origin[121][122] who had emigrated from the Levante of the Peninsula.[120] Of Hernán Cortés, Conqueror of Mexico, published in 1941, Ramón Iglesia points out how Madariaga paints a positive and favorable portrait of the conquistador,[123] who, according to Henry R. Wagner, is treated as a "symbol of the Spanish spirit".[124] In The Rise of the Spanish American Empire, of 1947, he defends the civilizing function that Spain carried out in the New World;[93] focusing on the role played by the former and touching only tangentially on the native population, with the aim of refuting the "Black Legend" in America;[125] this would be followed by The Fall of the Spanish American Empire.[126][127] Both were preceded by a Cuadro histórico de las Indias (1945).[128] His biography of Simón Bolívar,[129] published in 1951 with the intention of demythologizing the figure of Bolívar,[130] stirred controversy by depicting the American military man and pro-independence leader in a very negative light, as a "vulgar imitator of Napoleon",[131][132] who would have been driven by his "mestizo vindictiveness".[133] It has been pointed out that the idea conveyed by the work is that the independence of America was a great mistake on the part of the colonies.[134]

In 1951 he published Bosquejo de Europa, in which he assesses the European situation with a view to political integration;[135][136][137] in 1960 The Blowing Up of the Parthenon appeared, about the Cold War,[91][138] and in 1961 he wrote the prologue to Cortina de hierro sobre Cuba, by the Romanian writer Ştefan Baciu, about the Cuban Revolution.[139] Latin America Between the Eagle and the Bear, published in 1962, deals with the rise of communism in Latin America and advocates an intervention in Cuba to overthrow the regime of Fidel Castro,[90] in addition to outlining a hypothetical role that Spain could play in the region to keep it away from communism.[140]

Cover of Shelley and Calderon, and other essays on English and Spanish poetry (c. 1920)

As a novelist, his most notable works included El enemigo de Dios (1936)[57][lower-alpha 14] and El corazón de piedra verde (1942).[142] In 1925 he published in Spanish the double novel La jirafa sagrada o el búho de plata;[143] the following year The Sacred Giraffe appeared in English, published by Harper & Bros;[144] this work is satirical in character and is set in an imaginary African nation called Ebania, in the year 6922, in which the development of feminism has ended up producing a society governed by women and the existence of a movement in defense of men's rights called "hominism".[143][144] From 1954 is La camarada Ana, pejoratively labeled an "anti-communist pamphlet",[lower-alpha 15] and from 1964 Sanco Panco, a satirical novel in which, in a fictional universe of quixotic inspiration, the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, embodied in the eponymous character, and the Cold War are parodied;[146][147] it received mixed reviews;[146] although in Spain it was even said of it that "the best homage to its author is to forget it",[148] in Latin America it was better received.[149]

His Mujeres españolas of 1972 gathers a series of biographical essays on female figures connected with Spain, specifically those of Melibea—from La Celestina—, Catherine of Aragon, María Malibrán, Juana María de los Dolores de León Smith, Rosalía de Castro and Pauline Viardot-García.[150]

He published two books of memoirs: the first, Memorias de un federalista, in 1967, which covers his entire life up to that date but in a concise manner,[151] and another in 1974,[151][152] Morning without noon, more extensive but limited to the period 1921–1936, titled in Spanish Amanecer sin mediodía.[153][151][154][155] In 1982 Espasa-Calpe published Mi respuesta, a collection of Madariaga's articles in the magazine Ibérica—published in New York and directed by Victoria Kent, with contributions from authors belonging to the anti-Franco opposition in exile—,[70] and in 1989 Poesía, a compilation of Madariaga's poems with a prologue by Dámaso Alonso;[156] in 1990 a bibliographic compendium of his work, Obra de Salvador de Madariaga, and a biography, Vida de Salvador de Madariaga, both by Octavio Victoria Gil, appeared;[157] in 1991, Madariaga, ciudadano del mundo, by Carlos Fernández Santander;[158] in 2009, Salvador de Madariaga: Liberaler - Spanier - Weltbürger. Der Weg eines politischen Intellektuellen durch das Europa des 20. Jahrhunderts, by the German Thomas Nitzsche;[159] and in 2023 Salvador de Madariaga: el hombre que entró por la ventana, by Santiago de Navascués, was published.[160]

A non-exhaustive list of Madariaga's works is as follows:

He also wrote poems in French and in English, which were published in 1977 by the publisher Plaza y Janes under the title "Obra poética", which includes his poems in Spanish, French and English and his translations of English-language poets.

Notes

  1. ↑ According to the journalist Florencio Martínez Ruiz, at number 16 of Calle del Orzán.[4]
  2. ↑ His father, whom Preston cites simply as "José de Madariaga",[7] would fight a few years later in the Cuban War. Among his siblings was the future scientist Pilar de Madariaga Rojo, born in 1903,[8] as well as Emilio—a sculptor—, Pepe, Asita, César, Ricardo and Roberto, among others.[9]
  3. ↑ He was director of Disarmament of the organization for five years, between 1922 and 1927;[19] about this period he would write his work Disarmament, published in 1929 by Oxford University Press.[20]
  4. ↑ Although several authors cite 1937,[37][38] on the Nobel Prize website he appears on the list of nominees for 1936, in the edition that was ultimately won by Carlos Saavedra Lamas.[39]
  5. ↑ He was proposed by the Swede Sigurd Erixon; the prize, however, ended up being awarded to François Mauriac.[46]
  6. ↑ Among those who proposed him were William Rappard, John McCallum, Willy Bretscher, Clement Davies and Gilbert Murray. The prize was ultimately awarded to Albert Schweitzer.[46]
  7. ↑ His first wife, Constance Archibald, with whom he had two daughters, had just died in May of that year.[6]
  8. ↑ She outlived her husband, dying in 1991 at the age of eighty-three in Locarno, Switzerland, as Madariaga had.[54]
  9. ↑ After his return to Spain he was named academician with medal 24.[60] He had previously been elected a member of the academy in February 1935, with medal 12, replacing Miguel de Villanueva, a seat he took up in December of that same year; however, after the civil war and the establishment of the Francoist dictatorship, in 1940, he was stripped of this medal,[61] which was granted to Inocencio Jiménez Vicente.[60]
  10. ↑ Born on December 3, 1917, and also known as "Nieves Hayat Mathews".[64]
  11. ↑ Born in 1919 and died in 2014, a historian.[65]
  12. ↑ A circumstance underlined by Diego Jalón, who, after Madariaga's death, would note that the latter's liberal thought "lacks any expressed economic projection".[70]
  13. ↑ In 1930 it appeared in French under the title Anglais, Français, Espagnols, published by Gallimard.[105]
  14. ↑ In the opinion of Eugenio de Nora, it was his best novel.[141]
  15. ↑ Fernando Larraz, referring to a series of novels written in exile that obtained permission to be exported to Spain during the Francoist dictatorship, describes their quality as follows: "some as lamentable as Salvador de Madariaga's anti-communist pamphlet La camarada Ana".[145]
  16. ↑ The first edition of this work appeared in London in 1930, with the title Spain;[161] that same year it was published in New York under the title Spain. A Modern History.[108] It was later published in Spain by the publisher Aguilar in 1931, with the title España. Ensayo de historia contemporánea. An eleventh edition was published in 1978, the year of his death.[162]
  17. ↑ In English Victors, Beware!, published in 1946 in London.[168]
  18. ↑ Originally titled in English Shelley and Calderon, and other essays on English and Spanish poetry (1920).[169][170][14]
  19. ↑ Published in English in London with the title Portrait of Europe in 1952, and in New York in 1955.[135][136]
  20. ↑ Published in French in 1969 by Albin Michel with the title Charles Quint[178] and in 1981 by Grijalbo in Spanish as Carlos V.[179]
  21. ↑ In turn made up of "Los fantasmas", "Los dioses sanguinarios" and "Fe sin blasfemia".[181] It was translated into English with the title The Heart of Jade, in 1944.[182]
  22. ↑ With a prologue by Miguel de Unamuno.[184]
  23. ↑ A poem dedicated to Spain.[185]

References

  1. ↑ "‪La trayectoria política e intelectual de Salvador de Madariaga‬". scholar.google.com (in español). pp. 12–14. Retrieved 2023-11-14.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 García Cárcel 2003b, p. 3.
  3. ↑ González Cuevas 1989, p. 150.
  4. ↑ Martínez Ruiz 1978, p. 50.
  5. ↑ Beneyto 2011, pp. 6–7.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Pasamar Alzuria & Peiró Martín 2002, pp. 372–374.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Preston 1999, p. 197.
  8. ↑ Frontera Zunzunegui 2010.
  9. ↑ Madariaga 1987, pp. 5–17.
  10. ↑ Record of Salvador de Madariaga on the website of the Annales des Mines (in French).
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Thomas 1978, p. 45.
  12. ↑ González Cuevas 1989b, p. 77.
  13. ↑ Preston 1999, pp. 197–198.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Preston 1999, p. 198.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 González Cuevas 1989b, p. 78.
  16. ↑ Dotras Bravo 2008b, pp. 221–222.
  17. ↑ Francés 1922, pp. 12–13.
  18. ↑ Preston 1999, pp. 198–202.
  19. ↑ Preston 1999, p. 200.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Arnold-Forster 1929, pp. 387–389.
  21. ↑ Preston 1999, pp. 202–204.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Quintana Navarro 1996, p. 111.
  23. ↑ Madariaga Álvarez-Prida 2009, pp. 85–86.
  24. ↑ Preston 1999, p. 204.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Preston 1999, p. 207.
  26. ↑ "El Galeguismo republicano la encrucijada (Vol. I)" (in galego). Biblioteva Virtual Galega. 2006.
  27. ↑ Preston 1999, pp. 204–205.
  28. ↑ "El fermento y la masa: discusiones frustradas en torno al espíritu europeo en el Instituto Internacional de Cooperación Intelectual (1933-1936) | CEPC". www.cepc.gob.es (in español). Retrieved 2023-11-14.
  29. ↑ Preston 1995, p. 3.
  30. ↑ Preston 1999, p. 205.
  31. ↑ Quintana Navarro 1996, pp. 112–113.
  32. ↑ Preston 1999, p. 210.
  33. ↑ Preston 1999, pp. 208–209.
  34. ↑ Suárez 2000, pp. 42–43, 55–56.
  35. ↑ Madariaga 1983, p. 230.
  36. ↑ Preston 1999, p. 211.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Romero Salvadó 2013, pp. 197–198.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Preston 1999.
  39. ↑ "Nomination Database". Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB. 2014. Retrieved June 10, 2015.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Pazos 2009, pp. 317–332.
  41. ↑ Navascués, Santiago de (2022-06-01). "Otro modelo de transición: el centrismo de Madariaga como lugar de convergencia de la oposición al franquismo (1944-1948)". Historia Contemporánea (in español) (69): 605–633. doi:10.1387/hc.21804. ISSN 2340-0277. Retrieved 2023-11-14.
  42. ↑ Polet 2000, p. 18.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 Preston 1999, p. 220.
  44. ↑ "Salvador de Madariaga". ABC (in español). December 15, 1978. p. 54.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  45. ↑ Derungs 2009, pp. 135–137.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 "Nomination Database". Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB. 2014. Retrieved June 10, 2015.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Monferrer Catalán 2007, p. 355.
  48. ↑ Amat 2009, p. 63.
  49. ↑ Preston 1999, pp. 223–225.
  50. ↑ Crespo MacLennan 1997, pp. 357–358.
  51. ↑ Sainz Rodríguez 1986, p. 3.
  52. ↑ "Premio Mariano de Cavia. La espada y el espíritu". ABC (in español) (Madrid ed.). April 18, 1969. pp. 15, 85.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  53. ↑ "Salvador de Madariaga y Luis Permanyer, premios Mariano de Cavia y Luca de Tena; Carlos Tauler, premio Mingote". ABC (in español). April 18, 1969. p. 85.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 "Muere a los 83 años Emilia Rauman, viuda de Salvador de Madariaga". ABC (in español). June 11, 1991. p. 61.
  55. ↑ "Don Salvador de madariaga ha contraído matrimonio en Oxford". ABC (in español). November 20, 1970. p. 57.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  56. ↑ Gozalo 1973, pp. 126–127.
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 Esteban 1978, p. 48.
  58. ↑ Madariaga & Marías 1976.
  59. ↑ Harguindey 1976.
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 "Lista histórica" (in español). Real Academia de Ciencias Morales y Políticas. Archived from the original on June 20, 2016. Retrieved May 19, 2016.
  61. ↑ "Vida cultural. Salvador de Madariaga, de nuevo en la Real Academia de Ciencias Morales y Políticas". Ya (in español). January 2, 1977.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  62. ↑ Fusch, Alejandro (July 25, 1978). "Imposición de la Cruz de Alfonso X el Sabio a Salvador de Madariaga". El País (in español). Geneva.
  63. ↑ "Las cenizas de Salvador de Madariaga fueron aventadas en la Bahía de la Coruña". ABC (in español). Madrid. October 14, 1991. p. 12.
  64. ↑ Various authors 2003, p. 216.
  65. ↑ Scott 2014.
  66. ↑ "María Rosa de Madariaga: "Las tropas del Rif no vinieron a luchar contra los 'sin dios', sino a comer"". ABC (in español). Seville. June 10, 2002.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  67. ↑ Tristán Pimienta, Ángel (January 27, 2013). "Javier Solana, el español más mundial". La Provincia (in español).
  68. ↑ Duroux 2004, pp. 99–115
  69. ↑ Martínez Pascual 1994, pp. 563–564.
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 Jalón 1982, p. 50.
  71. ↑ González Cuevas 1989, p. 81b.
  72. ↑ González Cuevas 1989, pp. 180.
  73. ↑ Sobrino Heredia 2003, p. 759.
  74. ↑ Sobrino Heredia 2003, p. 768-774.
  75. ↑ Amat 2009, p. 64.
  76. ↑ Anson 1978, p. 31
  77. ↑ Preston 1999, p. 225.
  78. ↑ 78.0 78.1 González Cuevas 1989b, p. 84.
  79. ↑ González Cuevas 1989, pp. 172–173.
  80. ↑ Anson 1978, p. 31.
  81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 Morodo 1986, pp. 13–14.
  82. ↑ González Cuevas 1989, p. 163-167.
  83. ↑ González Cuevas 1989, p. 173-176.
  84. ↑ González Cuevas 1989b, pp. 93–94.
  85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 Southworth 2002, pp. 84–86.
  86. ↑ Preston 1999, pp. 209–210.
  87. ↑ Chevalier 2012, p. 515.
  88. ↑ Constitución de la República Española (PDF) (in español). December 9, 1931.
  89. ↑ Brock & Young 1999, p. 225«though in 1961 Jayaprakash proposed this idea, with the support of some Western pacifists as well as of nonpacifist internationalist like Salvador de Madariaga»
  90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 Johansson 1962, pp. 55–58.
  91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 91.2 Pereira 2003, p. 196.
  92. ↑ Preston 1999, p. 196.
  93. ↑ 93.0 93.1 Arredondo 2014, pp. 148–170.
  94. ↑ Benitez 1982, pp. 27–38.
  95. ↑ Monferrer Catalán 2007, pp. 352–355.
  96. ↑ Rebollo Sánchez 2001.
  97. ↑ Monferrer Catalán 2007, pp. 412–413.
  98. ↑ García Cárcel 2003, p. 9.
  99. ↑ 99.0 99.1 González Cuevas 1989, p. 151.
  100. ↑ 100.00 100.01 100.02 100.03 100.04 100.05 100.06 100.07 100.08 100.09 100.10 100.11 100.12 100.13 100.14 100.15 100.16 100.17 100.18 100.19 100.20 100.21 100.22 100.23 100.24 100.25 100.26 100.27 100.28 100.29 100.30 100.31 100.32 "Bibliografía básica". ABC (in español). December 15, 1978. p. 52.
  101. ↑ Carayon 1924, pp. 292–295.
  102. ↑ Chevalier 2012, pp. 515–516.
  103. ↑ Coester 1928, pp. 455–458.
  104. ↑ Preteceille 1929, p. 3.
  105. ↑ Pitrou 1931, pp. 173–178.
  106. ↑ Pitrou 1931, p. 174.
  107. ↑ 107.0 107.1 Rich 1959, pp. 319–320.
  108. ↑ 108.0 108.1 Merriman 1930, p. 67.
  109. ↑ Smith 1958, pp. 554–555.
  110. ↑ 110.0 110.1 110.2 Payne 1961, pp. 79–80.
  111. ↑ Payne 1961, pp. 79«Salvador de Madariaga has provided the most comprehensive survey of his country's recent past that is available in any language.»
  112. ↑ Jackson 1958, pp. 97–98.
  113. ↑ 113.0 113.1 De Wilde 1937, p. 10.
  114. ↑ Larrabee 1938, pp. 455–456.
  115. ↑ 115.0 115.1 González Cuevas 1989b, p. 94.
  116. ↑ Pérez Escolar 1986, p. 46.
  117. ↑ Fernández de la Mora 1962, p. 35.
  118. ↑ Lower 1960, p. 372.
  119. ↑ Southworth 2002, p. 241.
  120. ↑ 120.0 120.1 120.2 Mattingly 1940, p. 10.
  121. ↑ Nowell 1941, pp. 81–82.
  122. ↑ 122.0 122.1 122.2 Benitez 1982, p. 27.
  123. ↑ Iglesia 1942, pp. 135–138.
  124. ↑ Wagner 1942, pp. 911–914.
  125. ↑ Robertson 1948, pp. 857–859.
  126. ↑ Robertson 1949, pp. 646–647.
  127. ↑ Chaunu 1953, pp. 419–421.
  128. ↑ Pasamar 2010, pp. 215–216.
  129. ↑ Niedergang 1956, p. 6.
  130. ↑ Sanz Villanueva 1992, pp. 53–54.
  131. ↑ Michelin 1953, p. 371.
  132. ↑ Caballero Santos 2010, p. 187.
  133. ↑ Logan 1953, pp. 672–674The two impulses that drove both the Liberator and the Protector were «Napoleonic ambition and mestizo vindictivenes».
  134. ↑ Masur 1952, pp. 417–422.
  135. ↑ 135.0 135.1 Madariaga 1955.
  136. ↑ 136.0 136.1 Beneyto 2011, pp. 25–26.
  137. ↑ Fosdick 1955, p. 12.
  138. ↑ 138.0 138.1 Chamberlin 1960, pp. 19–20.
  139. ↑ Fort 1969, p. 17.
  140. ↑ Alexander 1964b, pp. 773–774.
  141. ↑ Martínez Ruiz 1978, p. 51.
  142. ↑ Sanz Villanueva 1992, p. 48.
  143. ↑ 143.0 143.1 Martín Rodríguez 2011, pp. 231–234.
  144. ↑ 144.0 144.1 Colton 1926, p. 252.
  145. ↑ 145.0 145.1 Larraz Elorriaga 2012, p. 103.
  146. ↑ 146.0 146.1 146.2 Dotras Bravo 2012, pp. 279–286.
  147. ↑ Arredondo 2014, p. 160.
  148. ↑ Various authors 1987, pp. 19–20.
  149. ↑ Dotras Bravo 2012, p. 279.
  150. ↑ Pérez Ferrero 1972, p. 37.
  151. ↑ 151.0 151.1 151.2 Miller 1993, pp. 989–990.
  152. ↑ 152.0 152.1 Pasamar Alzuria & Peiró Martín 2002, p. 374.
  153. ↑ 153.0 153.1 Vázquez Dodero 1974, p. 70.
  154. ↑ Carter 1972, pp. 728–729.
  155. ↑ Sacks 1976, pp. 942–951.
  156. ↑ García Nieto 1989, p. 53.
  157. ↑ Orringer 1994, pp. 285–287.
  158. ↑ Azancot 1991, p. 66.
  159. ↑ Felipe Mansilla 2011, pp. 258–260.
  160. ↑ Navascués Martínez, Santiago de (2023). Salvador de Madariaga: El hombre que entró por la ventana (in español). Marcial Pons. ISBN 978-84-18752-52-0. Retrieved 2023-11-14.
  161. ↑ "Spain / by S[alvador] de Madariaga". Base de datos del patrimonio bibliográfico de Patrimonio Nacional (in español). Patrimonio Nacional / Ministerio de la Presidencia.
  162. ↑ "Coincidiendo con su muerte. Aparece "España. Ensayo de historia contemporánea", de Madariaga". ABC (in español). December 16, 1978. p. 42.
  163. ↑ 163.0 163.1 163.2 163.3 163.4 163.5 Sanz Villanueva 1992, p. 49.
  164. ↑ Schurz 1941, p. 34.
  165. ↑ Titled in English Hernan Cortes. Conqueror of Mexico and published in 1941 by the Macmillan Company.[164]
  166. ↑ Ricard 1956, pp. 377–378.
  167. ↑ Alexander 1964, pp. 315–318.
  168. ↑ Cobban 1946, p. 556.
  169. ↑ Rodríguez Palomero 2001, pp. 117–138.
  170. ↑ Madariaga & s/f.
  171. ↑ Dotras Bravo 2008, p. 286.
  172. ↑ Pereira 2003, pp. 193–198.
  173. ↑ 173.0 173.1 Wellek 1992, pp. 315–317.
  174. ↑ Wilson 1949, pp. 390–397.
  175. ↑ In English On Hamlet, published in 1948 by Hollis and Carter.[174]
  176. ↑ Villarrazo 1977.
  177. ↑ 177.0 177.1 Merino & Romeo 2003, p. 11.
  178. ↑ Gual Camarena 1972, p. 428.
  179. ↑ Cadenas y Vicent 1986, p. 154.
  180. ↑ Sedwick 1960, pp. 169–173.
  181. ↑ Sanz Villanueva 1992, pp. 47–48.
  182. ↑ Beals 1944, p. 9.
  183. ↑ 183.0 183.1 183.2 183.3 Sanz Villanueva 1992, p. 47.
  184. ↑ Madariaga 1922.
  185. ↑ García de Enterría 1983.
  186. ↑ Díaz Díaz 1995, pp. 50–52.

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