Juan de la Cosa

From Hispanopedia
For other uses, see Juan de la Cosa (disambiguation).
Juan de la Cosa
Portrait of Juan de la Cosa by Luis Fernández Gordillo
Born
Santoña
Died
Turbaco
Notable workJuan de la Cosa map

Juan de la Cosa (Santoña, between 1450 and 1460 – Turbaco, February 28, 1510)[1] was a Spanish navigator and cartographer known for having taken part in seven of the first voyages to America and for having drawn the oldest surviving map on which the American continent appears.

Juan de la Cosa played a prominent role in the first and second voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Antilles, and in 1499 he took part as chief pilot in the expedition of Alonso de Ojeda to the coasts of the South American continent.

On his return to Andalusia he drew his famous world map, and shortly afterward he set sail again for the Indies, this time with Rodrigo de Bastidas. In the following years he alternated voyages to America under his own command with special assignments from the Crown, including a mission as a spy in Lisbon and participation in the Junta of pilots of Burgos in 1508. In 1509 he undertook what would be his last expedition, again together with Ojeda, to take possession of the coasts of present-day Colombia. La Cosa died in an armed clash with natives before he could take up his office of Alguacil Mayor of Urabá.

Origin and youth

Monument to Juan de la Cosa in Santoña (Cantabria).

It is not known exactly where Juan de la Cosa was born, but the most widely accepted hypothesis is that it was in Santoña (Cantabria),[2] since documents survive showing that he was a resident of Santoña and that his wife and daughter lived in that town.[3] Some chroniclers of the 16th century called him El Vizcaíno ("the Biscayan"), which led to his being confused with other sailors named Juan Vizcaíno, who are now known to have been different people.[4]

His date of birth, estimated to be between 1450 and 1460, is also unknown, and there is no information about his childhood or adolescence. It is assumed that as a young man he must have taken part in voyages on the Cantabrian Sea and, later, toward the Canary Islands and West Africa.[5]

The first well-founded references date from 1488, when he was in Portugal. At that time, the navigator Bartolomeu Dias had just arrived in Lisbon after having reached the Cape of Good Hope. The Catholic Monarchs reportedly sent La Cosa to that city as a spy in search of information and details about that discovery, and he managed to return to Castile before the Portuguese officials could capture him.[6]

At the beginning of the 1490s Juan was settled in El Puerto de Santa María (today in the Province of Cádiz) and owned a nao called Marigalante or Gallega. It is believed that he had business dealings with the Pinzón brothers.[5]

Voyages with Columbus to the Indies

First voyage

In 1492 he took part in the First Voyage of Christopher Columbus to the Indies aboard his nao, which according to later chroniclers was renamed Santa María for the occasion. He held the post of master, with Columbus as captain. The vessel was wrecked on the night of December 24–25 of the same year off the Haitian coast. The Diario written by Bartolomé de las Casas, supposedly on the basis of Columbus's notes, personally blames La Cosa for the incident, saying that it happened during his watch and that, moreover, he fled instead of coming to the aid of the ship.

Tuesday, December 25, Christmas Day
[...] It pleased Our Lord that at twelve o'clock at night, since they had seen the Admiral lie down and rest and saw that it was a dead calm and the sea as smooth as in a bowl, they all lay down to sleep, and the tiller was left in the hands of that boy, and the currents carried the ship onto one of those banks [...] The lad [...] shouted, at which the Admiral came out, and he was so quick that no one had yet felt that they were aground. Then the master of the ship, whose watch it was, came out, and the Admiral told him and the others to haul in the boat they were towing astern and take an anchor and cast it astern, and he with many others jumped into the boat, and the Admiral thought they were doing what he had ordered them. They cared for nothing but to flee to the caravel...
Wednesday, December 26
[...] had it not been for the treachery of the master and of the men, who were all from Palos all or most of them from his own land, in not being willing to cast the anchor astern to get the ship off, as the Admiral ordered them, the ship would have been saved...

— Diario de Cristóbal Colón. Facsimile edition by Jesús Varela Marcos, pp. 122-123.

However, in May 1493 De la Cosa received financial compensation from the Monarchs for the sinking of his nao on the first voyage. He was granted the right to transport "two hundred cahíces of wheat" from Andalusia to Gipuzkoa or Biscay, exempting him from paying certain duties over the following nine months.[7] When the term expired, in February 1494, the order was renewed on the same terms.[8] These documents, which speak of the sailor in laudatory terms ("good services that you have done us"), lead historians to think that in reality Juan de la Cosa was not to blame for the loss of his ship, contrary to what the Diario states.[5]

Second voyage

Juan de la Cosa took part in Columbus's second voyage (1493–1496), and it is believed that he must have been one of the expedition's cartographers. However, according to a payroll dated 1497 and discovered by Montserrat León Guerrero in 1998, La Cosa enlisted as a simple sailor on the nao Colina, earning 1000 maravedís a month.[9]

It is also known that Juan de la Cosa took part in the exploration of the coast of Cuba, since he was one of the signatories of the oath by which Columbus forced his crew members to declare that Cuba was not an island. In that document, dated June 1494, La Cosa appears as a sailor of the caravel Niña, although he could also be one of the "masters of sea charts" mentioned in the text.[10]

Some documents from Columbus's second voyage mentioned a sailor named Juan Vizcaíno, whom some historians had confused with Juan de la Cosa. The discovery of the 1497 payroll showed that in reality not one but two people named Juan Vizcaíno, as well as Juan de la Cosa, took part in this expedition, so that they were ultimately three different people.

Third voyage?

Most historians are of the opinion that Juan de la Cosa did not take part in Columbus's third voyage to the Indies (1498–1500).[11] However, Bartolomé de las Casas wrote that La Cosa "at that time (1500) was the best pilot there was in those seas, having gone on all the voyages the Admiral had made",[5] which would therefore include the third voyage. There also survives a statement by a witness in the Columbian lawsuits who claims to have seen La Cosa with Columbus "when Paria was discovered", which is normally assumed to have occurred during the third voyage. For this reason the historian Jesús Varela Marcos believes that La Cosa did take part in Columbus's third voyage and must have returned to Europe before the Admiral.[12].

Ojeda expedition

In 1499 the Crown decided to put an end to the monopoly that Columbus held over voyages to the Indies and opened the business to other navigators and entrepreneurs. This gave rise to a series of expeditions that historians have called minor voyages, voyages of reconnaissance and trade (rescate), or also Andalusian voyages, since they were all organized in and departed from Andalusia, and those who took part in them mostly lived in that region of Spain.[13]

Juan de la Cosa took part as chief pilot and cartographer in the first of these voyages, the one captained by Alonso de Ojeda (who had also been on Columbus's second voyage). The expedition left Cádiz on May 18, 1499, bound for Cape Aguer and from there to Gomera. Only 25 days later they were in the Gulf of Paria, opposite the mouth of the Orinoco River.[5] They meticulously explored the Caribbean coast westward, reaching the Coquibacoa Peninsula and Cabo de la Vela (in present-day Colombia). La Cosa was wounded by a native arrow.[6] Later they sailed to the island of Hispaniola, even though they had been forbidden to do so.[5] It is not known exactly when they returned to Spain; the dates that have been proposed are November 1499[14] or April–May 1500.[5]

This voyage yielded hardly any economic profit, but La Cosa was able to chart in detail the coast of the region explored, which he would soon reflect in his famous world map.

The world map

World map made by Juan de la Cosa in 1500. The New World is shown at the top (in green) and the Old World in the central and lower part (in white).
Main article: Juan de la Cosa map

After his return to Cádiz, La Cosa produced for the Catholic Monarchs or someone at their court[15] a world map that is the oldest surviving map on which the American continent appears. It is painted on two skins of parchment joined in the shape of an irregular rectangle 96 cm wide and 183 cm long. At the western end of the map there is an effigy of Saint Christopher, probably an allusion to Columbus, placed west of the Antilles above an inscription that reads: "Juan de la cosa la fizo en el puerto de S: mã en año de 1500" ("Juan de la Cosa made it in the port of Santa María in the year 1500").[16]

This map reflects the results of the discoveries made in America during the 15th century, with information from the voyages made by Columbus (voyages of 1492, 1493 and 1498), Alonso de Ojeda, Vicente Yáñez Pinzón, John Cabot, Pedro Álvares Cabral and various Portuguese explorers who sailed around Africa, such as Bartolomeu Dias and Vasco da Gama.

La Cosa suggested that the lands discovered in the north and south of America might be joined, forming a single continent, although with the upper effigy he used a trick to allow for the possibility that a sea passage existed between the two in Central America, something Columbus believed.[17] Cuba already appears identified as an island, contrary to Columbus's opinion. In general the Antilles appear in full, and in South America the coast is shown from Cabo de la Vela to Cape of San Agustín, showing part of northern Brazil. By contrast, in North America neither the Florida Peninsula, the Gulf of Mexico nor the Yucatán Peninsula are shown. Central America is covered by the effigy of the saint.

The outline of the coasts of Africa appears drawn correctly for the first time, thanks to the latest voyages of exploration made by the Portuguese. The region of Europe and the Mediterranean appears in good detail, while large areas of Asia are shown empty and imprecise.

The map is decorated with compass roses, flags, ships, cities, kings, figures from the Bible and mythological figures. Some rivers are represented, and most of the place names are written in Old Castilian.

Bastidas expedition

Toward the end of 1500, the Sevillian notary Rodrigo de Bastidas had obtained a royal license to explore the New World, so he consulted La Cosa about which route to take. In the end Bastidas decided to appoint him chief pilot of the expedition. Another member of the crew who would later become famous was Vasco Núñez de Balboa.

They left Cádiz in October 1500 with two ships and sailed along the Caribbean coast from Cabo de la Vela westward. They discovered the mouth of a great river which they named the Magdalena and were nearly shipwrecked at Bocas de Ceniza.[18] They then entered the Gulf of Urabá and reached present-day Puerto Escribanos, in Panama. They obtained significant quantities of gold,[6] but the poor condition of the vessels forced them to head for Hispaniola, where they were arrested by the governor Francisco de Bobadilla. La Cosa and Bastidas returned to Spain at the end of 1502.

Queen Isabella, by a royal decree dated April 3, 1503, appointed La Cosa Alguacil Mayor of Urabá as part of his reward for the services rendered on the voyage with Bastidas, and in addition he was appointed a salaried official in the newly created Casa de la Contratación.[6] Bastidas, for his part, was acquitted of all the charges Bobadilla had brought against him.[18]

Own voyages and special missions

Mission in Portugal

In 1503 La Cosa went to Lisbon, to the court of King Manuel I of Portugal, on a diplomatic or espionage mission. The Crown had become alarmed on receiving reports that Portuguese ships had returned to Portugal with slaves and brazilwood from what appeared to be the Indies of Castile.[11] According to the official documentation, La Cosa was given 10 gold ducats to "go to Portugal to inform himself and learn secretly about the voyage that the Portuguese made to the Indies with four ships...".[19] However, La Cosa was quickly captured and shortly afterward, through the intercession of Don Álvaro of Portugal,[20] he was released and returned to the Castilian Court in Segovia. There he delivered to the Queen "two sea charts of the Indies", which have not survived.[21]

First voyage to the Indies under his own command

In 1504 La Cosa managed to carry out his first voyage of discovery under his own command as Captain General and pilot, thanks to a capitulation from the Crown to discover and watch over the coasts of Tierra Firme. With four armed ships he sailed along the coasts between Margarita Island and the Gulf of Urabá, where he obtained an abundant "rescate" (a word that designated both commercial profit and war booty). In Cartagena de Indias he found and rescued the Sevillian merchant Cristóbal Guerra and his men, with whom, however, he had great conflicts. They suffered hardships in Urabá and Jamaica, until La Cosa managed to bring them all to Hispaniola.[5]

Juan de la Cosa, resident of Santa María del Puerto, pilot of Rodrigo de Bastidas, fitted out in the year '04 four caravels with the help of Juan de Ledesma, of Seville, and of others, and with the King's license, because he offered to subdue the Caribs of that land. He went, then, to land at Cartagena, and I believe he found there Captain Luis Guerra, and between them they made war and did what harm they could; they raided the island of Codego, which lies at the mouth of the port. They took six hundred people, ranged along the coast, hoping to trade for gold; they entered the Gulf of Urabá, and on a sandbank Juan de la Cosa found gold, which was the first from there to be presented to the King. They carried the ships very full of people; they turned back to Santo Domingo, for they found neither trade nor provisions.

— Francisco López de Gómara, Historia general de las Indias (1552), ch. 70

La Cosa had to remain for about two years on Hispaniola because he had been left without ships. It is not known exactly how he returned to Europe, in 1506. The profit from his voyage amounted to some two and a half million maravedís, since the royal fifth was 491,708 maravedís. In addition, La Cosa received a prize of 50,000 maravedís agreed upon before the voyage.[11]

Second voyage of his own

The following year, in 1507, the Casa de la Contratación appointed him to lead a small fleet that would watch over the coasts between Cádiz and Cape St. Vincent, which was a gathering place for pirates.[6] La Cosa patrolled with two caravels between July and September 1507.[11]

Shortly afterward he began a new ocean crossing from El Puerto de Santa María, returning the following year. For this voyage he received 100,000 maravedís.[5] It has been written that Bastidas may also have taken part in this expedition.[22]

Junta of Burgos

In March 1508 he took part in the Junta of Burgos at the request of the Regent Ferdinand the Catholic, together with Vicente Yáñez Pinzón, Juan Díaz de Solís and Amerigo Vespucci, who were the best navigators the Crown of Castile had at that time, to discuss, among other matters, the project for an expedition to find a sea passage to Asia through or around the lands discovered in the west.[23] At that same Junta he represented Alonso de Ojeda in the contest for the governorship of Tierra Firme, in competition with Diego de Nicuesa. In the end the Crown decided to divide Tierra Firme into two governorates: Veragua, west of the Gulf of Urabá and governed by Nicuesa; and Nueva Andalucía to the east, governed by Ojeda.

Also in 1508 La Cosa was confirmed in the office of Alguacil Mayor of Urabá granted five years earlier, but this time on a hereditary basis.

Last voyage and death

La Cosa received from the Crown the office of lieutenant governor of Nueva Andalucía, of which Alonso de Hojeda was to be governor, as well as substantial financial assistance.[6][11] The expedition left Sanlúcar de Barrameda on September 4, 1509. On it La Cosa took his wife Teresa, his children and two female slaves.[24]

Having arrived in Santo Domingo, they set sail again for their final destination on November 10 of the same year with three vessels and some 300 men, among them a soldier named Francisco Pizarro.[5] La Cosa settled the dispute between the two new governors (Ojeda and Nicuesa) over which exact place in the Gulf of Urabá would be the boundary of their respective governorates, designating the Atrato River as the border between Veragua and Nueva Andalucía.

On arriving in Nueva Andalucía in December, Ojeda decided to land in the Bay of Calamar, disregarding the advice of La Cosa, who recommended that the Indians of the area where they were should not be disturbed, since they were natives who used poisoned arrows. The Cantabrian proposed heading for the shores of the Gulf of Urabá, where less warlike Indians lived whom La Cosa had met five years earlier, but in the end he obeyed Ojeda's order. Shortly afterward the expedition members became embroiled in a battle with natives that ended in a Spanish victory, which prompted Ojeda to venture into the jungle, pursuing the natives in their flight as far as the village of Turbaco. On reaching the village, Ojeda, La Cosa and the other men were taken by surprise by the natives, who shot poisoned arrows. La Cosa fell dead, as did most of his men, but Ojeda was able to escape.[5]

When Ojeda returned to the Bay of Calamar he met the expedition of his rival Nicuesa. Having learned of what had happened at Turbaco, the Castilians set aside their differences, and the men of both expeditions took revenge by destroying the village of Turbaco and killing almost all its inhabitants. Some chronicles state that when they found La Cosa's corpse it looked like a hedgehog full of arrows; others say, on the contrary, that the body had been devoured by the Indians.[5][25]

La Cosa's widow received 45,000 maravedís to marry off her daughter, as well as all the natives the navigator had in his possession, as a posthumous reward for the services rendered.[11] The fate of La Cosa's son, who in theory should have inherited the office of Alguacil Mayor of Urabá, is unknown.[22]

His legacy

Cartography

Monument to Juan de la Cosa, at the Castle of San Marcos

The world map of Juan de la Cosa is one of the most important works of cartography of the late 15th century and early 16th century. It was rediscovered in 1832 by Baron Walckenaer, minister plenipotentiary of Holland in Paris, who bought it at a very low price. On the baron's death in 1853, the world map was auctioned, and the Spanish government, on the advice of Ramón de la Sagra, acquired it for 4321 francs. Since then it has been on display at the Naval Museum of Madrid.

Numerous scholars have made reproductions and analyses of various areas of La Cosa's map. The first were those of Alexander von Humboldt in his Atlas géographique et physique des régions équinoxiales du Nouveau Continent of 1834,[26] Ramón de la Sagra in 1837 in the Historia física política y natural de la isla de Cuba, and the viscount of Santarém in 1842 with his Atlas de la Edad Media.

It is known that La Cosa must have made other important maps, but they have never been found. In particular, it is recorded that in 1503 he was paid seven ducats for two "sea charts" that he offered to the Queen.[5]

On the other hand, it is possible that the bachiller Martín Fernández de Enciso took advantage of his friendly relations with La Cosa to incorporate part of his cartographic knowledge into his work Suma de geografía que trata de todas las partes y provincias del mundo: en especial de las Indias, printed in Seville in 1519.[22]

Historiography

Several chroniclers of the 16th century mentioned Juan de la Cosa, highlighting his great nautical qualities:

After the discovery of the world map in Paris in 1832, Alexander von Humboldt dealt with La Cosa's life in his Examen critique de l'histoire de la géographie du nouveau continent (1836). On the occasion of the Fourth Centenary of the Discovery of America in 1892, a biographical study in Spanish, French and English was published accompanying a facsimile copy of the world map. Among the biographies of Juan de la Cosa written in the 20th century, those by Víctor Andresco (1949), Alberto Fernández Galán (1951), Florentino Pérez Embid (1951), Antonio Ballesteros Beretta (1954) and Francisco Morales Padrón (1963) stand out.[5]

In the 1950s several historians (Justin Winsor, Alice B. Gould, George Morison) defended the thesis that there had been two different sailors named Juan de la Cosa, both residents of Puerto de Santa María: one would have been the master of the nao Santa María on the First Voyage of Columbus, and the other would have taken part in the second and drawn the world map. This thesis was refuted by Roberto Barreiro Meiro in 1970.[15]

Today

The hospital ship Juan de la Cosa.

Every year, in the month of August, a regatta bearing his name is held in the waters of the Bay of Cádiz, organized by the Real Club Náutico de El Puerto de Santa María.

In 2006, the Instituto Social de la Marina launched a hospital ship, named Juan de la Cosa in his honor.

In 2010, on the occasion of the 500th anniversary of the death of Juan de la Cosa (which occurred on February 28, 1510, in Turbaco, Colombia), numerous commemorative events were held, mainly in Cantabria and Andalusia. Between July 3 and August 30 an exhibition titled «Juan de la Cosa y la época de los Descubrimientos» ("Juan de la Cosa and the Age of Discovery") was held in Santoña, which included a lecture series.[30] The Association for the Dissemination of Hispanidad (Disad) published in August 2010 the comic titled Juan de la Cosa y el Descubrimiento de América ("Juan de la Cosa and the Discovery of America"), which was distributed free of charge among schoolchildren in Cantabria. It was drawn by Rubén Martín Ojeda "Mudito". For this it had the collaboration of the Directorate General of Institutional Relations of Defense and the City Council of Santander.[31]

For its part, the Association of the Chart of Juan de la Cosa, chaired by Juan Lago Novás, is delivering full-scale reproductions of the map made in 1892 to various public institutions and ships of the Spanish Navy, for example: the City Council of Puerto de Santa María,[32] the Real Club Náutico of the same town, and the Hispanic Society of America in New York.[33]

References

  1. ↑ CÁNOVAS DEL CASTILLO, p. 28.
  2. ↑ CÁNOVAS DEL CASTILLO, p. 11.
  3. ↑ BILBAO, Pedro (1948), "Juan de la Cosa" (PDF), VII Congreso de Estudios Vascos (Biarritz) (in español), San Sebastián: Eusko Ikaskuntza (2003), pp. 321–328, ISBN 84-8419-931-2 {{citation}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  4. ↑ LEÓN GUERRERO, Monserrat, vol. 1, p. 164.
  5. ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 CERVERA PERY, José (2000). "Juan de la Cosa: el marino y el hombre" (PDF). Cuadernos Monográficos del Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval (in español) (35): 49–57. Retrieved March 26, 2010.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 "Juan de la Cosa" (in español). ArteHistoria. Archived from the original on March 26, 2010. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
  7. ↑ Order dated in Barcelona on May 28, 1493. Record kept in the Archive of Simancas, Registro General del Sello LEG,149305,4.
  8. ↑ Order dated in Medina del Campo on February 28, 1494. Record kept in the Archive of Simancas, Registro General del Sello II-1494-130.
  9. ↑ "Gente del Segundo Viaje de Cristóbal Colón", A.G.S., Contaduría Mayor de Cuentas, 1st period, bundle 98. Transcribed in LEÓN GUERRERO, Monserrat, vol. 3, p. 133.
  10. ↑ A.G.I., Patronato 8, ramo 11. Partially transcribed in LEÓN GUERRERO, Monserrat, vol. 2, pp. 348-351.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Colomar Albajar, María Antonia (2011). "Juan de la Cosa y la Casa de la Contratación: los inicios de la administración de Indias y las fuentes documentales". Actas de las Jornadas de Historia sobre el Descubrimeinto de América (in español). Vol. II. Palos de la Frontera: Universidad Internacional de Andalucía & Ayuntamiento de Palos de la Frontera. pp. 232–265.
  12. ↑ VARELA MARCOS, Jesús (2001). "Los reflejos políticos en la carta de Juan de la Cosa". In VARELA MARCOS, Jesús (ed.). Descubrimientos y Cartografía IV: Grandes viajes descubridores (in español). Valladolid: Seminario Iberoamericano de Descubrimientos y Cartografía. pp. 61–79.
  13. ↑ LAVIANA CUETOS, María Luisa. "Los viajes andaluces" (in español). ArteHistoria. Archived from the original on November 30, 2009. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
  14. ↑ RAMOS, Demetrio (1980). "El regreso de Alonso de Ojeda de su viaje de descubrimiento". In Antonio DOMÍNGUEZ ORTIZ (ed.). Homenaje a Antonio Domínguez Ortiz (in español). Madrid: Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia. ISBN 8436908333., cited in RAMOS, Demetrio (1982). "El retorno a España de Alonso de Ojeda, en calidad de preso, después de su Segundo Viaje" (PDF). Quinto Centenario (in español) (4): 209–220. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2016. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 MARTÍN MERÁS, Luisa (2000). "La carta de Juan de la Cosa: interpretación e historia". Monte Buciero (Ayuntamiento de Santoña) (in español) (4): 71–86. ISSN 1138-9680.
  16. ↑ ELKHADEM, Hossam; et al. (1992). "Juan de La Cosa, Parte correspondiente a la América de la Carta General de Juan de La Cosa..." Cartes de Amériques dans les collections de la Bibliothèque Royale Albert Ier (in français). Bibliothèque Royale Albert Ier. Archived from the original on December 5, 2011. Retrieved November 1, 2008. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  17. ↑ SIEBOLD, James (1998). "Monography on the Portolan World Map, Juan de la Cosa, 1500". Cartographic Images. Retrieved April 10, 2009.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 CEBALLOS GÓMEZ, Diana Luz. "Rodrigo de Bastidas". Gran Enciclopedia de Colombia (in español). Círculo de Lectores. Archived from the original on January 6, 2010. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
  19. ↑ Entry in the Libro Mayor de la Contratación dated August 22, 1503. Transcribed in MANZANO MANZANO, vol. 1, p. 505.
  20. ↑ d'Arienzo, Luisa (2007). "La famiglia di Bartolomeo Perestrello, suocero di Colombo". Bollettino della Società Geografica Italiana (in italiano). XII: 649–670.
  21. ↑ MANZANO MANZANO, vol. 1, p. 505.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 "Juan de la Cosa". Boletín de la Sociedad Geográfica de París (in español). 3 (17). 1862. Archived from the original on October 19, 2008. Retrieved 29-3-201. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  23. ↑ "La búsqueda del paso" (in español). ArteHistoria. Archived from the original on March 26, 2010. Retrieved March 29, 2010.
  24. ↑ Mena García, Carmen (2012-12-30). "Preparativos del viaje de Diego de Nicuesa para poblar la Tierra Firme. Sevilla y los mercaderes del comercio atlántico (1509)". Revista de Indias (in español). 72 (256): 617–650. doi:10.3989/revindias.2012.20. ISSN 0034-8341 1988-3188, 0034-8341. Retrieved 2020-11-15. {{cite journal}}: Check |issn= value (help)
  25. ↑ The cannibalism version is recorded by Peter Martyr d'Anghiera in Book I of his Second Decade.
  26. ↑ "HUMBOLDT. Atlas géographique et physique..." LiveAuctioneers.com. Retrieved March 31, 2010.
  27. ↑ Letter to Luis Hurtado de Mendoza dated in Valladolid on December 18, 1513.
  28. ↑ Historia general y natural de las Indias, islas y tierra-firme del mar océano (1535), book 3, ch. 8.
  29. ↑ Historia general de las Indias (1552), ch. 57.
  30. ↑ "Descubriendo al navegante". El Diario Montañés (in español). February 21, 2010. Retrieved March 29, 2010.
  31. ↑ "El cómic también descubre a Juan de la Cosa". El Diario Montañés (in español). September 17, 2010. Archived from the original on September 19, 2010. Retrieved September 24, 2010.
  32. ↑ HERNÁNDEZ, Alejandro (March 12, 2010). "Juan de la Cosa vuelve a El Puerto" (in español). Andalucía Información. Retrieved March 29, 2010.
  33. ↑ Zapardiel de la Matta, Marta (April 15, 2011). "Juan de la Cosa en la Hispanic Society" (in español). HoyEsArte.com. Archived from the original on April 17, 2011. Retrieved June 18, 2011.

Bibliography

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