Don Quixote

*Don Quixote*
Don Quixote
	Title page of 1605
Original title	El ingenioso hidalgo don Quixote de la Mancha (1605); Segunda parte del ingenioso caballero don Quixote de la Mancha (1615)
Author	Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra
Country	Spain
Language	Middle Spanish
Genre	Adventure novel, parody of the novels of chivalry, realist novel
Publisher	Juan de la Cuesta at the expense of Francisco de Robles
Publication date	1605, 1615

<phonos file="El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha (1842), Tomo I.flac">Don Quixote: Volume I, El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha, version of 1842, with a Caribbean accent</phonos>

Don Quixote of La Mancha (Don Quijote de la Mancha)^{[lower-alpha 1]} is a novel written by the Spaniard Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. Its first part, published under the title The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha (El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha) at the beginning of 1605, is the most outstanding work of Spanish literature and one of the principal works of world literature.^[1] In 1615 its continuation appeared under the title Second Part of the Ingenious Knight Don Quixote of La Mancha (Segunda parte del ingenioso caballero don Quijote de la Mancha). The Quixote of 1605 was published divided into four parts; but when the Quixote of 1615 appeared as the Second Part of the work, the division into four sections of the volume Cervantes had published ten years earlier was in effect revoked.^[2]

It is the first work that genuinely demythologizes the chivalric and courtly tradition through its burlesque treatment. It represents the first modern novel and the first polyphonic novel; as such, it exercised an enormous influence on all of European narrative. Because it was considered "the best literary work ever written," it headed the list of the best literary works in history, which was drawn up from the votes of one hundred great writers of 54 nationalities at the request of the Norwegian Book Club and Bokklubben World Library in 2002; it was thus the only exception to the strict alphabetical order that had been adopted.^[3]

Structure, genesis, content, style and sources

The novel consists of two parts: The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha, published with the date 1605, although printed in December 1604, by which time it must already have been available to read in Valladolid,^[4] and the Second Part of the Ingenious Knight Don Quixote of La Mancha, published in 1615.^{[lower-alpha 2]}

Cervantes wrote the prologue and the burlesque poems that precede the first part in August 1604, by which date he must already have submitted the original to the Royal Council for approval,^[5] since the administrative procedures and the mandatory approval by the censors were completed on September 26, when the signature of the royal privilege is recorded.^[6] The edition was handled by Don Francisco de Robles, "bookseller to the King our Lord," who invested between seven and eight thousand reales in it, of which one fifth corresponded to the payment of the author. Robles commissioned the printing of this first part from the house of Juan de la Cuesta, one of the printing presses that had remained in Madrid after the transfer of the Court to Valladolid,^[7] which finished the work on December 1, very quickly for the conditions of the time and with a rather mediocre quality, at a level no higher than was usual then in Spanish printing houses.^[8] This 1604 princeps edition also contains an extremely high number of errata, several times greater than those found in other works by Cervantes of similar length.^[9] The first copies must have been sent to Valladolid, where the mandatory tasa was issued, which had to be inserted in the gatherings of each copy and which was dated December 20, so the novel must have been available in what was then the capital during the last week of the month, while in Madrid people probably had to wait until the beginning of 1605.^[4] This edition was reprinted in the same year and in the same workshop, so that there are in fact two authorized editions of 1605, and they are slightly different: the most important difference is that "The theft of Sancho's Rucio," missing from the first edition, is recounted in the second, though out of place.^[10] There were also two pirate editions published the same year in Lisbon.^[11]

There is a theory that a shorter novel existed earlier, in the style of his future Exemplary Novels. That piece of writing, if it existed, is lost, but there is much testimony that the story of Don Quixote—without it being understood exactly what is being referred to, or the way in which the news circulated—was known in literary circles before the first edition (whose printing was finished in December 1604). For example, the Toledan Ibrahim Taybilí, whose Christian name was Juan Pérez and who was the best-known Morisco writer among those settled in Tunis after the general expulsion of 1609–1612, recounted a visit in 1604 to a bookshop in Alcalá where he acquired the Epístolas familiares and the Relox de Príncipes of Fray Antonio de Guevara and the Historia imperial y cesárea of Pedro Mexía. In that same passage he mocks the fashionable books of chivalry and cites the Quixote as a known work. This allowed Jaime Oliver Asín to add a piece of evidence in favor of the possible existence of a disputed edition prior to that of 1605. This hypothesis has been refuted by Francisco Rico.

Second printing of the first edition of the first part, and first edition of the second part

The Entremés de los romances and other possible sources of inspiration

There is a work whose parallels with Don Quixote are indisputable: the Entremés de los romances (Interlude of the Ballads), in which the peasant protagonist goes mad from reading—but from reading ballads. The peasant abandoned his wife and took to the roads, as Don Quixote did. This interlude has a double reading: it is also a criticism of Lope de Vega, who, after having composed numerous autobiographical ballads in which he recounted his love affairs, abandoned his wife and went off to the Invincible Armada. Cervantes's interest in the ballad tradition is well known, as is his resentment at having been pushed out of the theaters by the greater success of Lope de Vega, as well as his standing as a great writer of interludes. An argument in favor of this hypothesis would be the fact that, although the narrator tells us that Don Quixote has gone mad because of reading books of chivalry, during his first sally he constantly recites ballads, above all at the moments of greatest delirium. For all these reasons, it could be a plausible hypothesis. However, scholars agree neither on the date of the Entremés de los romances nor on the date of composition of the first chapters of Don Quixote, so it is not known at all which of the two works is the source of the other.^[12]

Given Cervantes's extremely wide reading, a variety of works have been suggested as the inspiration for this or that episode or aspect of the work. Among them are:

Tirant lo Blanch, by Joanot Martorell.
Morgante, by Luigi Pulci.
Orlando Furioso, by Ludovico Ariosto.
The Golden Ass, by Apuleius.^[13]
The Pilgrim's Account, the first autobiography of Ignatius of Loyola,^[14] who, like Don Quixote and Cervantes himself, was much given to reading books of chivalry at one point in his life.
Amadis of Gaul and The Adventures of Esplandián, by Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo.

Structure

The First Part is divided, in imitation of Amadis of Gaul, into four parts. It enjoyed formidable success—although as a comic work, not as a serious work—and there were several reprints and translations, some authorized and others not. It did not bring great financial benefit to the author, who had sold all rights to the work to his publisher Francisco de Robles.

On the other hand, the attack on Lope de Vega in the prologue and the criticisms of the theater of the time in the speech of the Canon of Toledo (chapter 48) drew upon him the ill will of Lope's partisans and of Lope himself, who until then had been Cervantes's friend.

This led to the appearance in 1614 of an apocryphal second part of the work under the authorial name, invented or real, of Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda, and with a false imprint. In the prologue Cervantes is gravely insulted and branded as envious, in response to the offense inflicted on Lope. Nothing is known of who this Fernández de Avellaneda was, but very complex theories have been formulated on the matter; furthermore, there existed a contemporary figure, the parish priest of Avellaneda (Ávila), who may have been the author. An important Cervantes scholar, Martín de Riquer, suspects that it was another real person, Jerónimo de Pasamonte, a soldier who had been a comrade of Cervantes and author of an autobiographical book, who was aggrieved by the publication of the first part, in which he appears as the galley slave Ginés de Pasamonte. And it is even possible that he drew inspiration from the continuation that Cervantes was preparing.

In 1615 the authentic continuation of the story of Don Quixote, that of Cervantes, was published with the title Second Part of the Ingenious Knight Don Quixote of La Mancha. In it, the novelist plays with the fact that the protagonist learns that people have already begun to read the first part of his adventures, in which both he and Sancho Panza appear named as such, as well as with the existence of the spurious second part.

First part

What would later be called the "First Part" was originally called The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha and consists of 52 chapters, in turn divided into four parts of 8, 6, 14 and 24 chapters respectively. It begins with a prologue in which Cervantes mocks pedantic erudition, and with some comic poems, as preliminaries, composed in praise of the work by the author himself, who justifies this by saying that he found no one willing to praise a work as extravagant as this one, as we know from a letter of Lope de Vega. Indeed, it is, as the priest (a character in the novel) says in chapter 47 of the first part, an "unbound writing," free of rules, which mixes the "lyric, epic, tragic, comic," and in whose development stories of various genres are interspersed, such as: Grisóstomo and the shepherdess Marcela, the novella The Curious Impertinent, the captive's tale, the discourse on arms and letters, the one on the Golden Age, Don Quixote's first sally alone, and the second with his inseparable squire Sancho Panza (the second part narrates the third and final sally).

Cervantes, as a homodiegetic narrator—that is, one who takes part as both narrator and character—explains (in chapter 9) that he did not have the manuscripts of the continuation of the novel, which, as an ingenious literary device, he attributes to an Arab author (Cide Hamete Benengeli), but that he found them by chance while strolling in Toledo, so that he will be able to go on relating the adventures of Don Quixote, after he finds someone to translate for him the "characters which I recognized to be Arabic."^[15]^[16]

The novel begins by describing a poor hidalgo—whose exact name will only be revealed at the end of the work: Alonso Quijano—native of an unspecified place in La Mancha, who goes mad reading books of chivalry and believes himself a medieval knight-errant.

In short, his wits being now utterly gone, he hit upon the strangest notion that ever a madman in the world fell into, and it was that it seemed to him fitting and necessary, both for the increase of his honor and for the service of his commonwealth, to make himself a knight-errant... (ch. 1)

He gives himself a suggestive name: Don Quixote of La Mancha; he christens his horse Rocinante, refurbishes the arms of his great-grandparents and chooses the lady with whom to be in love. Without anyone seeing him he sets out into the countryside on his first sally, but with alarm he remembers that he has not been "dubbed a knight," so, arriving at an inn, which he mistakes for a castle, the innkeeper for the castellan and some prostitutes for ladies, all after the manner of his books, he decides to hold the "vigil of arms" there and persuades the innkeeper to give him the accolade. At last, in a satirical ceremony, Don Quixote is dubbed a knight by the innkeeper, and from this moment he resumes his ride with greater vigor. All manner of tragicomic adventures befall him, in which, driven at bottom by goodness and idealism, he seeks to "undo wrongs" and help the disadvantaged and the unfortunate. He professes a deep platonic love for his lady Dulcinea del Toboso, who is in reality a peasant girl "of very good looks": Aldonza Lorenzo. In his first adventure he tries to save a lad named Andrés from being flogged by his employer, which ends up to the young man's greater harm; then, at a crossroads, he challenges a whole group of merchants to acknowledge that his lady is the most beautiful in the world without even seeing her. Beaten by one of the merchants, he is found by a neighbor of his who, on the back of his mount, takes him back to the village, where he is cared for by his niece and the housekeeper. The priest and the barber of the village subject Don Quixote's library to a purge and burn part of the books that have done him so much harm, making him believe that it was enchanters who made his collection disappear. Recourse to the manipulations of enchanters will be constant throughout the work: enchanters who at every step distort reality for Don Quixote, allowing him to explain his failures.

In the interval between the first and second sallies, Don Quixote engages as his squire his neighbor, a peasant named Sancho Panza, to whom he promises great rewards, in particular to make him governor of some kingdom he will conquer in his adventures. The other fundamental character of the novel then appears, one who enables Don Quixote to engage in dialogue and who will counterbalance his extreme idealism.

Once again, on his second sally, this time accompanied by his squire Sancho, Don Quixote rides out across the Campo de Montiel seeking to exercise his new calling. At this point his most famous adventure takes place: Don Quixote fights some giants, which are nothing other than windmills, despite the warnings of his squire.

At this point they caught sight of thirty or forty windmills that stand in that plain, and as soon as Don Quixote saw them, he said to his squire:
—Fortune is guiding our affairs better than we could have hoped to wish; for look there, friend Sancho Panza, where thirty or a few more monstrous giants appear, with whom I intend to do battle and take the lives of them all, and with whose spoils we shall begin to grow rich: for this is righteous war, and it is a great service to God to sweep so evil a seed from the face of the earth.
—What giants? —said Sancho Panza.
—Those you see there —answered his master—, with the long arms, for some of them are wont to have them nearly two leagues long.
—Look, your grace —answered Sancho—, those that appear over there are not giants but windmills, and what seem to be arms on them are the sails, which, turned by the wind, make the millstone go.
—It is quite plain —answered Don Quixote— that you are not versed in this business of adventures; they are giants, and if you are afraid, get out of the way and set yourself to prayer while I go to engage them in fierce and unequal battle.
And saying this, he spurred his horse Rocinante, paying no heed to the shouts his squire Sancho was giving him, warning him that beyond any doubt they were windmills, and not giants, that he was going to attack. But he was so set on their being giants that he neither heard the shouts of his squire Sancho nor perceived, though he was now quite close, what they were; rather, he went along crying out in a loud voice:
—Flee ye not, cowardly and vile creatures, for it is a single knight who attacks you.
At this a little wind rose and the great sails began to move, and Don Quixote, seeing this, said:
—Well, though you move more arms than those of the giant Briareus, you shall pay me for it.
And on saying this, and commending himself with all his heart to his lady Dulcinea, begging her to succor him in such a trial, well covered by his round shield, with his lance in rest, he charged at Rocinante's full gallop and rammed the first mill that stood before him; and as he thrust his lance into the sail, the wind turned it with such fury that it smashed the lance to pieces, dragging horse and knight along with it, and the knight went rolling across the field in a sorry state. Sancho Panza hastened to help him as fast as his donkey could run, and when he arrived he found that he could not stir, such was the fall that Rocinante had taken with him... (ch. 8)

From here on numerous adventures follow one another, most of which end badly. Nevertheless, in the first of them, Don Quixote wins a genuine victory by defeating a young, strong and quarrelsome Biscayan in a true duel to the death, although he puts in a tight spot a distinguished lady traveling in a carriage, whom he wishes to protect against her will. Soon, master and squire run into misfortune when they are beaten by a mob of muleteers on account of Rocinante, who came too close to their mares. Battered, Don Quixote and Sancho end up at an inn where they try to rest. At the inn, master and servant are the protagonists of a hilarious nighttime uproar, when Don Quixote in his imagination mistakes a slovenly prostitute named Maritornes for the innkeeper's daughter, whom he believes to be in love with him; this arouses the wrath of a muleteer, who beats Don Quixote and Sancho to a pulp. In the morning, after Don Quixote tries his magic balm of Fierabras, both leave, but not before Sancho—to his great shame—is tossed in a blanket by a group of wool carders who were lodging there.

Then comes one of Don Quixote's most absurd adventures: the adventure of the flocks of sheep, in which the character mistakes the sheep for two armies about to clash; in his imagination he gives a lengthy description of the principal combatants to Sancho's astonishment; finally, Don Quixote takes sides and attacks one of the flocks, and is soon knocked from his horse by the shepherds. That night Don Quixote attacks a procession of mourning Benedictine monks who were accompanying a coffin to its burial in another city. Then master and servant keep watch in a wood where they hear some loud noises that lead Don Quixote to believe there are other giants nearby; although in reality they are only the blows of some fulling mills in the water. The following day there befalls Don Quixote the "high adventure and rich prize of the helmet of Mambrino," in which he snatches from a barber the famous barber's basin that has immortalized the visual and graphic representation of his figure. Then a new and grotesque adventure takes place, in which Don Quixote distorts to the extreme the chivalric ideal of freeing captives: the forcible liberation of a group of galley slaves being taken by the King's justice to serve their sentence; the galley slaves, led by Ginés de Pasamonte, repay the favor very badly, stoning their liberators, to Don Quixote's great shame.

Don Quixote and Sancho next go deep into the Sierra Morena. Various situations occur in this place: the strange disappearance of the Rucio, Sancho's donkey, an event not recorded in the first edition and amended in later ones, although not satisfactorily. Imitating Amadis of Gaul, Don Quixote decides to do penance, and at a certain moment he declares to the surprised Sancho his most intimate secret: who Dulcinea del Toboso really is. They meet a new character: Cardenio, who shows signs of derangement resulting from a great disappointment in love. Don Quixote sends Sancho with a letter to Dulcinea, which obliges him to set off in the direction of El Toboso. While this is happening, his fellow villagers, the priest and the barber, have followed Don Quixote's trail, and on the way they meet Sancho, who returns to his master and lies to him about the success of his journey. They also come across a young woman named Dorotea, who, alone, is seeking to settle accounts in love with the man who robbed her of her honor. They persuade Dorotea to take part in an intricate plan to return Don Quixote to his village: she poses as a Princess named Micomicona, whose kingdom is being terrorized by a giant. The Princess, the priest and the barber, in disguise, present themselves before Don Quixote. The Princess asks him to accompany her so that he may kill the giant and free her kingdom. Don Quixote willingly agrees and they all leave the Sierra and arrive once again at the inn where Sancho's blanket-tossing took place. In the course of this journey, Sancho mysteriously recovers his Rucio.

At the inn a series of secondary characters converge whose stories intertwine: Cardenio, his beloved Luscinda, his former friend Don Fernando and others. They confront one another and resolve their romantic conflicts. For his part, Don Quixote arouses everyone's admiration with his speeches and his apparent good sense, but he also exasperates the innkeeper with his new whims: the famous battle of the character with the skins of red wine, which he believes to be giants, takes place, as does the dispute with the owner of the basin, who angrily demands it back; Don Quixote also falls victim to a heavy-handed prank on the part of Maritornes and the innkeeper's daughter, which consists of leaving him tied up and hanging by one hand from one of the walls of the inn. Finally, they all agree on the way to control Don Quixote: they tie him up and make him believe he has been enchanted, and put him in a cage in which they carry him back to his village. For his part, Sancho sees through the trick, but Don Quixote pays him no heed, believing himself bewitched. After some vicissitudes they return to their village, where once again the protagonist is cared for by his niece and the housekeeper. Here the first part ends. As an epilogue, in the manner of the books of chivalry, Cervantes simulates a series of epitaphs in honor of Don Quixote and promises a third sally.^[17]

Throughout all the adventures, master and squire hold pleasant conversations. Little by little they reveal their personalities and forge a friendship based on mutual respect, although Sancho clearly realizes his master's madness and takes advantage of it to distort reality for him, generally in order to get out of the tight spots in which his master places him.

Cervantes dedicated this part to Alfonso Diego López de Zúñiga-Sotomayor y Pérez de Guzmán, 6th Duke of Béjar and Grandee of Spain.^{[citation needed]}

The echo of Cervantes's work caught on quickly, giving rise to the Quixotic masquerades of university students that took place in Córdoba and Zaragoza in that same year on the occasion of the festivities for the beatification of Teresa of Jesus throughout Spain. On October 4, the eve of the main feast, the students of Córdoba performed in the streets a picaresque masque of the "Betrothal of Don Quixote and his beloved Dulcinea"; and two days later, in the Zaragoza square of the Discalced Carmelites, another similar masquerade demonstrated the great popularity achieved by the first part of the work. Even within the Account of the Festivities of Zaragoza on the occasion of this beatification, Luis Díez de Aux includes some humorous verses on "La verdadera y segunda parte del ingenioso don Quixote de la Mancha. Compuesta por el Licenciado Aquesteles,… Año de 1614" ("The true second part of the ingenious Don Quixote of La Mancha. Composed by the Licentiate Aquesteles,… Year of 1614"), included in his Fiesta y passeo de los Estudiantes, which parody Cervantes's work. The popular rejoicing at the peculiar staging of the first part of the Quixote shows the extent to which the beatification of Teresa of Jesus in 1614 became the seed of the future and successful dramatizations of the masterpiece of Spanish literature.^[18]

Second part

The title of this part was The Ingenious Knight Don Quixote of La Mancha and it consists of 74 chapters. In the prologue, Cervantes ironically defends himself against the accusations of Lope's partisan Avellaneda and laments the difficulty of the art of writing novels: fantasy becomes as insatiable as a hungry dog. The novel plays with various planes of reality by including within it the edition of the first part of the Quixote and, later, that of the apocryphal Second Part, which the characters have read. Cervantes defends himself against the implausibilities that had been found in the first part, such as the mysterious reappearance of Sancho's Rucio after being stolen by Ginés de Pasamonte and the fate of the money found in a valise in the Sierra Morena.

Thus, in this second installment Don Quixote and Sancho are aware of the publishing success of the first part of their adventures and are already famous. In fact, some of the characters who will appear from then on have read the book and recognize them. What is more, in a display of clairvoyance, both Cervantes and Don Quixote himself state that the novel will become a classic of literature and that the figure of the hidalgo will be seen over the centuries as a symbol of La Mancha.

The work begins with Don Quixote's renewed resolve to return to his old ways and his preparations for doing so, not without the fierce resistance of his niece and the housekeeper. The priest and the barber have to admit Don Quixote's madness and, together with the bachelor Sansón Carrasco, hatch a new plan that will allow them to confine Don Quixote to his village for a long time. For his part, Don Quixote renews his offers to Sancho, promising him the longed-for isle in exchange for his company. Sancho reacts by becoming obsessed with the idea of being a governor and changing his social status, which provokes the mockery of his wife Teresa Panza. With the knowledge of their fellow villagers, Don Quixote and Sancho begin their third sally.

Both head for El Toboso in order to visit Dulcinea, which puts Sancho in a hard spot, fearful that his earlier lie will come to light. In one of the most accomplished episodes of the novel, Sancho manages to deceive his master by making him believe that Dulcinea has been enchanted, and passes off a coarse village woman as Don Quixote's beloved, while Don Quixote contemplates her dumbfounded. Once again Don Quixote attributes the transformation to the enchanters who pursue him. The enchantment of Dulcinea and the way in which Don Quixote will seek to reverse it will be one of the motifs of this second part. Downcast, Don Quixote continues on his way; he soon comes across some actors traveling in a cart to perform the act Las Cortes de la Muerte (The Parliament of Death), who make fun of him and enrage Don Quixote. One night he meets a supposed knight-errant who calls himself the Knight of the Mirrors—who is none other than the bachelor Sansón Carrasco in disguise—together with his squire, a neighbor named Tomé Cecial. The Knight of the Mirrors boasts of having defeated Don Quixote in an earlier battle, which provokes Don Quixote's challenge. The Knight of the Mirrors accepts and sets as a condition that, if he wins, Don Quixote will retire to his village. They prepare to fight, but with such bad luck for the bachelor that, surprisingly, Don Quixote defeats him and forces him to acknowledge his error; to save his life, the bachelor accepts the condition and withdraws humiliated, plotting revenge, a revenge that will manifest itself almost at the end of the novel. This unexpected victory lifts Don Quixote's spirits, and he continues on his way. He soon meets another knight, the Knight of the Green Coat, who will accompany him for a few days' journey. Next comes one of Don Quixote's most eccentric adventures: the adventure of the lions; Don Quixote proves his valor by challenging a male lion that is being carried by a carter to the King's court; fortunately the lion pays no attention to him and Don Quixote declares himself satisfied; he even, to celebrate his victory, changes his former nickname of "Knight of the Sorrowful Face" to that of "Knight of the Lions." Don Diego de Miranda—the man in the green coat—invites him to his house for a few days, where the degree of his madness is tested by Don Diego's son, a student and poet praised by Don Quixote. Don Quixote takes his leave and sets out again, soon meeting two students on their way to the wedding of Camacho the Rich and the beautiful Quiteria. In this episode Don Quixote, atypically, manages to right a genuine wrong, by taking the side of Basilio (Quiteria's first betrothed, whom she marries by surprise) in defense of his life, threatened by Camacho and his friends; Don Quixote obtains recognition and gratitude from the newlyweds.

There follows a series of self-contained episodes: the first is the descent into the Cave of Montesinos, where the knight falls asleep and dreams all sorts of absurdities that Sancho Panza does not quite believe, since they refer to the supposed enchantment of Dulcinea. This descent is a parody of an episode from the first part of the Espejo de príncipes y caballeros (Mirror of Princes and Knights) and of the descents into the underworld of epic poetry, and for Rodríguez Marín it constitutes the central episode of the entire second part. Then they arrive at an inn that Don Quixote recognizes as such and not as a castle, to Sancho's delight, which shows that the protagonist is beginning to see things as they are and not as in the first part, in which he saw things according to his imagination ("Aproximación al Quijote", Salvat ed. 1970, p. 113, by Martín de Riquer). To the inn comes a certain Master Pedro, whose trade is that of puppeteer and who has a fortune-telling monkey; but he is none other than Ginés de Pasamonte, who immediately recognizes Don Quixote and agrees to give a performance of his puppet show; at a certain moment Don Quixote, seized by a sudden fit of madness, attacks the puppet show with his sword, smashing it to pieces, but blames the enchanters for having confused him. The ride continues, and Don Quixote and Sancho become involved in the adventure of the braying: they try to bring to concord two villages that are fighting because of an ancestral jest, but Sancho's blunder forces them to flee under the threat of crossbows and firearms. They soon reach the banks of the Ebro River, where the adventure of the enchanted boat takes place: Don Quixote and Sancho embark in a small boat, the former believing the voyage to be enchanted, but the navigation ends abruptly and both plunge into the river.

From chapter 30 to 57, Don Quixote and Sancho are taken in at their castle by a wealthy Duke and Duchess who have read the first part of the novel and know the foibles of both. For the first time Don Quixote and Sancho come into contact with the high Spanish nobility and its courtly retinue, all resembling the world of the books of chivalry. The Duke and Duchess, for their part, take pains to present reality to them in the same way, orchestrating chivalric situations in which Don Quixote can act as a knight; at bottom, Don Quixote and Sancho are regarded as two buffoons whose stay at the castle is meant to entertain the Duke and Duchess. Subtly but mercilessly, the lords of the castle organize a series of farces that make fools of the two protagonists, who, in spite of everything, trust their hosts to the end. Only the castle's chaplain flatly rejects the charade and violently rebukes Don Quixote for his lack of sanity.

The following episodes of jest ensue: the surprising appearance of the wizard Merlin, who declares that Dulcinea can only be disenchanted if Sancho gives himself three thousand lashes on his buttocks; this does not at all please the squire, and from then on there will be constant tension between master and servant on account of this penance. Next, they persuade Don Quixote to fly on a wooden horse called Clavileño to rescue a Princess and her father from the enchantment a giant has cast on them; Don Quixote and Sancho fall naturally for the hoax. One of the most memorable farces is Sancho's obtaining and governing of the promised isle: indeed, Sancho becomes governor of an "isle" called Barataria, granted to him by the Duke and Duchess, who are intent on mocking the squire. Sancho, however, demonstrates both his intelligence and his peaceful and simple character in governing the dependency. Thus he will soon resign from a post in which he finds himself beset by all kinds of dangers and by a physician, Pedro Recio de Tirteafuera, who will not let him eat a bite. While Sancho governs his isle, Don Quixote continues to be the object of mockery in the castle: a forward young woman named Altisidora pretends to be madly in love with him, putting at risk his chaste love for Dulcinea; one night a bag of cats is lowered at his window, and they scratch his face; on another occasion, at the request of a lady named Doña Rodríguez—who foolishly believes that Don Quixote is a genuine knight-errant—he is obliged to take part in a frustrated duel with the man who wronged her daughter. Finally, Don Quixote and Sancho are reunited (Don Quixote finds Sancho at the bottom of a pit into which he has fallen on his way back from his failed governorship).

Both take leave of the Duke and Duchess, and Don Quixote sets off for Zaragoza to take part in some jousts that are to be held there. Little happens to them next; at one point they are charged by a herd of bulls owing to Don Quixote's recklessness. And at an inn the man from La Mancha learns from some gentlemen lodging there that the Quixote of Avellaneda has been published, and its details, set in Zaragoza, outrage him exceedingly, for they present him as a raving lunatic. He decides to change course and head for Barcelona. From this moment on, according to Martín de Riquer in his work Aproximación al Quijote, the plot changes substantially: real adventures begin, in which the character loses prominence, which anticipates his end. First, they meet a band of brigands led by Roque Guinart, a strictly historical figure (Perot Rocaguinarda), a real adventurer. Although the brigand treats them well, they witness bloody deeds (for example, Roque kills a brigand a few meters from Sancho). After several days of taking full part in the clandestine life of their hosts, Roque leaves them on the beach at Barcelona. Don Quixote and Sancho enter a great and cosmopolitan city and are amazed at the activity going on in it. They lodge at the house of Don Antonio Moreno, who shows them a supposedly enchanted bronze head that gives ingenious answers to the questions put to it. Another day the knight and his squire visit the galleys anchored in the port and suddenly find themselves caught up in a naval battle against a Turkish ship—which was carrying a Morisco lady who had fled Algiers—with a large deployment of men and artillery, dead and wounded. No one pays attention to Don Quixote's remarks and proposals, and his madness no longer amuses. Finally, the most dramatic moment of his career arrives: his defeat by the Knight of the White Moon. One morning this knight appears on the beach at Barcelona and challenges Don Quixote to single combat over the question of which lady is preeminent; the battle—in the presence of the authorities and the people of Barcelona—is swift, and the great man of La Mancha falls defeated onto the sand.

He was upon him at once, and, placing his lance on his visor, said to him:
—You are vanquished, knight, and even dead, if you do not confess the conditions of our challenge.
Don Quixote, bruised and stunned, without raising his visor, as if speaking from within a tomb, in a weakened and sickly voice, said: —Dulcinea del Toboso is the most beautiful woman in the world, and I the most unfortunate knight on earth, and it is not right that my weakness should defraud this truth. Press your lance, knight, and take my life, since you have taken my honor. (ch. 64 of the Second Part)

The Knight of the White Moon is in reality the bachelor Sansón Carrasco in disguise, and he has made Don Quixote promise that he will return to his village and not leave it again as a knight-errant for the space of a year. Don Quixote does so, after spending several days dejected in bed.

The return is sad and melancholy, and Sancho tries by various means to lift his master's spirits. Don Quixote thinks, for a moment, of replacing his chivalric obsession with that of becoming a shepherd like those of the pastoral books. During the return, master and servant are trampled by a great herd of pigs—the "swinish adventure"—and when they pass by the castle of the Duke and Duchess they are the object of new pranks; further on, Don Quixote and Sancho have a heated argument over the matter of the lashes the servant must give himself to disenchant Dulcinea. In a certain place they meet Álvaro Tarfe, a character from Avellaneda's Quixote, who declares the falseness of the one he met in Zaragoza. They finally reach their village. Don Quixote falls ill, but at last returns to sanity and, with lucid reasoning, abhors the absurdities of the books of chivalry, though not the chivalric ideal. He dies of grief amid the compassion and tears of all.

While the story is being narrated, many others are interwoven that serve to divert attention from the main plot. Amusing and pleasant conversations take place between knight and squire, in which one perceives how Don Quixote progressively loses his ideals, influenced by Sancho Panza. His self-designation also changes, passing from Knight of the Sorrowful Face to Knight of the Lions. Sancho Panza, on the contrary, gradually assimilates his master's ideals, which turn into a fixed idea: to become governor of an isle.

On October 31, 1615, Cervantes dedicated this part to Pedro Fernández de Castro y Andrade, 7th Count of Lemos.^[19]

Interpretations of the Quixote

The Quixote has undergone, like any classic work, all kinds of interpretations and criticisms. In 1615, through the mouth of Sancho, Miguel de Cervantes provided the first report on the impression of readers, among whom "there are different opinions: some say, 'mad, but amusing'; others, 'brave, but unlucky'; others, 'courteous, but impertinent'" (chapter II of the second part). These opinions already contain the two later interpretive tendencies: the comic and the serious. However, the novel was received in its time as a book, in Cervantes's own words, "of entertainment," as a delightful book of jests or as a highly amusing and devastating parody of the books of chivalry. This was, after all, the intention the author wished to show in his prologue and in the final paragraph of the second part, although it did not escape him that he had in fact touched on a much deeper theme that went beyond all proportion.

All of Europe read Don Quixote as a satire. The English did so from 1612 in the translation by Thomas Shelton. The French, from 1614 thanks to the version by César Oudin, although the tale The Curious Impertinent had already been translated in 1608. The Italians from 1622, the Germans from 1648 and the Dutch from 1657, in the first illustrated edition. The comedy of the situations prevailed over the good sense of many of the speeches.

The dominant interpretation in the 18th century was the didactic one: the book was a satire of various defects of society and, above all, it sought to correct the taste corrupted by the books of chivalry. Alongside these opinions were those that saw the work as a comic book of entertainment with no greater significance. The Enlightenment set about producing the first critical editions of the work, the most outstanding of which was not, in fact, the work of Spaniards but of Englishmen: the magnificent one by John Bowle, which shamed all the Spaniards who prided themselves on being Cervantes scholars, and who belittled as best they could this summit of Cervantine textual criticism, however much they drew on it lavishly. Neoclassical idealism led many to point out numerous defects in the work, especially offenses against good taste, as Valentín de Foronda did; but also against the orthodoxy of good style. The Neoclassicist Diego Clemencín stood out very particularly in this respect in the 19th century.

Soon the profound, grave and esoteric readings began to arrive. One of the most interesting and still little studied is the one that holds, for example, that the Quixote is a parody of the Autobiography written by Saint Ignatius of Loyola, which circulated in manuscript and which the Jesuits tried to conceal. That resemblance did not escape, among others, Miguel de Unamuno, who did not, however, try to document it. In 1675, the French Jesuit René Rapin considered that Don Quixote contained an invective against the powerful Duke of Lerma. The protagonist's attacks on the windmills and the sheep would be, according to this reading, a criticism of the Duke's measure of debasing, by adding copper, the value of silver and gold coinage, which from then on was known as mill coinage and vellón. By extension, it would be a satire of the Spanish nation. This reading, which makes Cervantes anything from an anti-patriot to a critic of idealism, of military endeavor or of mere enthusiasm, would resurface at the end of the 18th century in the judgments of Voltaire, D'Alembert, Horace Walpole and the intrepid Lord Byron. For the latter, Don Quixote had dealt chivalry in Spain a mortal blow with a smile. By then, fortunately, Henry Fielding, the father of Tom Jones, had already turned Don Quixote into a symbol of nobility and an admirable model of narrative irony and censure of social customs. The best eighteenth-century interpretation of Don Quixote is offered by the English narrative of that century, which is at the same time the century in which the work was enthroned as an example of balanced and natural aesthetic Neoclassicism. The Valencian Gregorio Mayans y Siscar had something to do with this: in 1738 he wrote, as a prologue to the English translation of that year, the first great biography of Cervantes. The first gusts of what would be the Romantic hurricane announced with complete clarity that a transformation of taste was approaching that would divorce vulgar reality from ideals and desires. José Cadalso had written in his Cartas marruecas (Moroccan Letters) in 1789 that in Don Quixote "the literal meaning is one thing and the true meaning another very different one."

German Romanticism tried to decipher the true meaning of the work. Friedrich von Schlegel assigned to Don Quixote the rank of a precursory culmination of Romantic art in his Dialogue on Poetry of 1800 (an honor shared with Shakespeare's Hamlet). A couple of years later, Friedrich Schelling, in his Philosophy of Art, established the terms of the most influential modern interpretation, based on the confrontation between idealism and realism, whereby Don Quixote became a tragic fighter against coarse and hostile reality in defense of an ideal he knew to be unrealizable. From that moment on, the German Romantics (Schelling, Jean Paul and Ludwig Tieck, among others) saw in the work the image of pathetic heroism. The poet Heinrich Heine recounted in 1837, in the lucid prologue to the German translation of that year, that he had read Don Quixote with sorrowful seriousness in a corner of the Palatine garden in Düsseldorf, secluded in the Avenue of Sighs, moved and melancholy. Don Quixote went from making people laugh to moving them, from burlesque epic to the saddest of novels. The philosophers Hegel and Schopenhauer projected their metaphysical concerns onto Cervantes's characters.

Romanticism initiated the figurative or symbolic interpretation of the novel, and the satirical reading was relegated to the background. "That the knight should be beaten to a pulp" no longer amused the English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Don Quixote seemed to him to be "a substantial living allegory of reason and the moral sense," doomed to failure for lack of common sense. The essayist William Hazlitt held a similar opinion in 1815: "The pathos and dignity of the sentiments are often disguised by the jocularity of the subject, and provoke laughter, when in reality they ought to provoke tears." This sad Don Quixote lasted until the dawn of the 20th century. The poet Rubén Darío invoked him in his Litany of Our Lord Don Quixote with this verse: "Pray for us, lord of the sorrowful," and has him commit suicide in his short story DQ, composed the same year, personifying in him the defeat of 1898. It was not difficult for the Romantic interpretation to end up identifying the character with his creator. The quixotic misfortunes and disappointments were read as metaphors for Cervantes's battered life, and in the mask of Don Quixote people claimed to see the features of his author, both old and disillusioned. The French poet and playwright Alfred de Vigny imagined a dying Cervantes who declared in extremis that he had wanted to portray himself in his Knight of the Sorrowful Face.

Part of the monument to the fourth centenary of *Don Quixote of La Mancha* in Alcalá de Henares.

During the 19th century, Cervantes's character became a symbol of goodness, of selfless sacrifice and of enthusiasm. He represents the figure of the enterprising man who opens new paths. The Russian novelist Ivan Turgenev would do so in his essay Hamlet and Don Quixote (1860), in which he confronts the two characters as antagonistic human archetypes: the extroverted and daring against the self-absorbed and reflective. This Don Quixote embodies an entire morality which, more than altruistic, is fully Christian.

Before Wystan Hugh Auden wrote the essay "The Ironic Hero," Dostoevsky had already compared Don Quixote with Jesus Christ, affirming that "of all the figures of good men in Christian literature, without doubt the most perfect is Don Quixote."^[20] Prince Myshkin of The Idiot is also forged in the Cervantine mold. Gogol, Pushkin and Tolstoy saw in him a hero of extreme goodness and a mirror of the wickedness of the world.

Homage for the fourth centenary of the *Quixote*, in front of the birthplace of Miguel de Cervantes in Alcalá de Henares.

The Romantic century not only established the grave interpretation of Don Quixote but also pushed it into the sphere of political ideology. Herder's idea that the spirit of a people (the Volksgeist) manifests itself in art spread throughout Europe and is found in authors such as Thomas Carlyle and Hippolyte Taine, for whom Don Quixote reflected the features of the nation in which it was conceived: for the conservative Romantics, the renunciation of progress and the defense of a sublime though outdated time and values, those of medieval chivalry and of the imperial Spain of Philip II. For the liberals, the struggle against the intransigence of that somber Spain without a future. These political readings remained current for decades, until the regime that emerged from the Civil War in Spain favored the first, imbuing the story with traditionalist nationalism.

The 20th century recovered the jocular interpretation as the one closest to that of the first readers, but the symbolic interpretation continued to be deepened. Esoteric and absurd readings multiplied, and many creative writers formulated their own approach, from Kafka and Jorge Luis Borges to Milan Kundera. Thomas Mann, for example, invented in his Voyage with Don Quixote (1934) a knight without ideals, sullen and somewhat sinister, fed by his own celebrity, and Vladimir Nabokov, with anachronistic lenses, sought to dot the i's and cross the t's in a famous and controversial course.

Perhaps the main problem is that the Quixote is not one book but two, difficult to reduce to a single unity of meaning. The madman of 1605, with his pasteboard helmet and his blunders, causes more laughter than sighs, but the sensible old man of 1615, perplexed at the deceptions everyone hatches against him, requires the reader to take the meaning of his words and adventures far beyond the primary comedy of beatings and buffoonery. Panegyric and philosophical interpretations abound in the 19th century. Esoteric interpretations began in that century with the works of Nicolás Díaz de Benjumea La estafeta de Urganda (1861), El correo del Alquife (1866) and El mensaje de Merlín (1875). Benjumea heads a long series of entirely misdirected impressionistic readings of Don Quixote; he identifies the protagonist with Cervantes himself, making him an out-and-out republican freethinker. He was followed by Benigno Pallol, better known as Polinous, Teodomiro Ibáñez, Feliciano Ortego, Adolfo Saldías and Baldomero Villegas. From 1925 onward, the dominant trends in literary criticism fall into various branches:

Perspectivism (Leo Spitzer, Edward Riley, Mia Gerhard).
Existentialist criticism (Américo Castro, Stephen Gilman, Durán, Luis Rosales).
Narratology or socio-anthropology (Redondo, Joly, Moner, Cesare Segre).
Stylistics and related approaches (Helmut Hatzfeld, Leo Spitzer, Casalduero, Rosenblat).
Research into the sources of Cervantes's thought, above all in its "dissident" aspect (Marcel Bataillon, Vilanova, Márquez Villanueva, Forcione, Maravall, José Barros Campos).
The opponents of Américo Castro, from various points of view, regarding the modernizing impulse shown by Castro's El pensamiento de Cervantes (Erich Auerbach, Alexander A. Parker, Otis H. Green, Martín de Riquer, Russell, Close).
Renewed older critical traditions: research into Cervantes's attitude toward the chivalric tradition (Murillo, Williamson, Daniel Eisenberg); the study of the "errors" of the Quixote (Stagg, Flores) or of its language (Amado Alonso, Rosenblat); the biography of Cervantes (McKendrick, Jean Canavaggio).

Realism in Don Quixote

The first part represents a considerable advance in the art of narration. It constitutes a second-degree fiction, that is, the character influences the events. What was usual in the books of chivalry until then was that the action mattered more than the characters. These were brought in and carried off at will, depending on the plot (first-degree fictions). The events, however, are presented with little interconnection among themselves. They are fitted into a scarcely homogeneous, motley and varied structure, typically Mannerist, in which one can recognize barely adapted interludes, inserted exemplary novellas, speeches, poems, and so on.

The second part is more Baroque than Mannerist. It represents a much greater narrative advance by Cervantes as regards novelistic structure: the events are presented more closely amalgamated, and it is now a third-degree fiction. For the first time in a European novel, the character transforms the events and at the same time is transformed by them. The characters evolve with the action and are not the same at the beginning as at the end.

As the first truly realist novel, when Don Quixote returns to his village, he comes to accept the idea that not only is he not a hero, but that there are no heroes. This hopeless and intolerable idea, similar to what nihilism would be for another Cervantine writer, Dostoevsky, will kill the character who was, at the beginning and at the end, Alonso Quijano, known by the nickname of the Good.

Themes

The thematic richness of the work is such that, in itself, it is inexhaustible. It amounts to a rewriting, recreation or mirror-like worldview of the world of its time. Nevertheless, some main guidelines can be sketched that may serve as a guide for its reader.

The theme of the work revolves around whether it is possible to find an ideal in the real. This main theme is closely linked to an ethical concept, that of freedom in human life, as Luis Rosales has studied; Cervantes was a prisoner in Algiers, attempting to escape several times, and fought for the freedom of Europe against the Ottoman Empire. What should man hold to regarding reality? What idea can he form of it through the exercise of freedom? Can we change the world, or does the world change us? What is the sanest, or the least mad, course? Is it moral to try to change the world? Are heroes possible? From this main theme, closely linked to the Erasmian theme of madness and to the so very Baroque theme of appearance and reality, other secondary ones derive:

The literary ideal: the theme of literary criticism is constant throughout Cervantes's work. In the work there are criticisms of the books of chivalry, the pastoral novels^[22] and the new theatrical formula created by Lope de Vega.
The ideal of love: the main couple (Don Quixote and Dulcinea) never comes together, and that is why various love stories appear (mostly between young couples), some unhappy because of conceptions of life rigorously tied to freedom (Marcela and Grisóstomo) or because of a pathological insecurity (the inserted novella The Curious Impertinent), and others that come to a happy conclusion (Basilio and Quiteria in "Camacho's Wedding"). The theme of jealousy, very important in Cervantes, also appears.
The political ideal: the theme of utopia appears in passages such as Sancho's government of the isle of Barataria, Don Quixote's chimerical reveries in the Cave of Montesinos, and others.
The ideal of justice: as in the adventures of young Andrés, the galley slaves, and so on.

Originality

As a literary work, it can be said to be the masterpiece of humor literature of all time. Moreover, it is the first modern novel and the first polyphonic novel, and it would exert an overwhelming influence on all subsequent European narrative.

In the first place, it contributed the formula of realism, as it had been tried out and perfected in Castilian literature since the Middle Ages (Cantar de Mio Cid, Conde Lucanor, Celestina and its continuations, Lazarillo, Guzmán de Alfarache, and so on). It is characterized by parody and mockery of the fantastic, social criticism (very veiled and very profound), insistence on psychological values and descriptive materialism.

In the second place, it created the polyphonic novel, that is, the novel that interprets reality not from a single point of view but from several that are superimposed at the same time, creating a vision of it so rich and confused that it can be taken for reality itself. Cervantes never refrains from adding levels of interpretation, and he blurs the image of the narrator by interposing several (Cide Hamete, the translator, the indefinite Annals of La Mancha, and so on), and he resorts to the topos of the found manuscript so that the story appears autonomous in itself and without "literariness," suspending the reader's disbelief. He turns reality into something extremely complex that he not only tries to reproduce but, in his ambition, even seeks to replace. The modern novel, as the Quixote conceives it, is a mixture of everything that renounces nothing. As the author himself states through the mouth of the priest, it is an "unbound writing": epic, lyric, tragic and comic genres, prose, verse, dialogue, speeches, jokes, fables, philosophy, legends and the parody of all these genres by means of humor and metafiction.

The voracious modern novel represented by the Quixote tries to replace reality even physically: it lengthens the narration beyond what was customary and in this way transforms the work into a cosmos.

Narrative techniques

In Cervantes's time, epic could also be written in prose. The narrative techniques that Cervantes tries out in its architecture (and that he carefully conceals to make the work appear more natural) are several:

Recapitulation, or the periodic summary of events every so often, so that the reader does not get lost in such a long narrative.
The contrast between the idealized and the real, which occurs at all levels. For example, in the style, which sometimes appears equipped with all the elements of rhetoric and at other times appears strictly confined to the imitation of popular speech.
There is also the contrast between the characters, whom Cervantes likes to place in pairs, so that each helps him construct another, different one through dialogue. A dialogue in which the characters listen to and understand one another, helping them to change their personality and perspective: Don Quixote becomes Sanchified and Sancho becomes Quixotified. If the master becomes obsessed with being a knight-errant, Sancho becomes obsessed with being governor of an isle. The one comes to be as disillusioned as the other. Conversely, Don Quixote becomes increasingly aware of the theatrical and feigned nature of his attitude. For example, as a result of his reverie in the Cave of Montesinos, Sancho will mock him for the rest of the journey. This mixture and superimposition of perspectives is called perspectivism.
Humor is constant in the work. It is a very characteristic humor, endowed with a fine irony that respects the human dignity of the characters, and that strikes sparks from the contrast between the idealized and the vulgar.
An early form of narrative counterpoint: a tapestry-like compositional structure in which the stories follow one another, intertwining and being continually taken up again.
Suspense, that is, the creation of enigmas that "pull" the narrative and the reader's interest along until their logical resolution, by which time another enigma has already been posed to continue further.

Linguistic and literary parody of genres, languages and social roles as a formula for mixing points of view until offering the same confused vision that the interpretation of the real provides.
The orality of Cervantes's language, a vestige of Cervantes's deep theatrical obsession, whose liveliness brings the reader extraordinarily close to the characters and to realism, facilitating identification and complicity with them: in the novel as Cervantes conceives it, dialogue is an essential element and occupies a more important place than in any previous fiction.
Perspectivism causes each event to be described by each character according to a different worldview, and accordingly reality suddenly becomes complex and rich in suggestions.
Related to the above is the skillful simulation of imprecision (something pointed out by Jorge Luis Borges) in the names of the characters and in unimportant details, so that the reader can create his own image of some aspects of the work and feel at ease in it, suspending his critical sense. This calculated ambiguity, also related to Cervantes's fine irony, makes the fiction resemble, or usurp, reality itself, from which so many unexpected things may be expected.
It uses metafictional games in order to blur and make disappear the figure of the author of the text by means of continual narrative intermediaries (Cide Hamete Benengeli, the supposed Annals of La Mancha, and so on), which thus make the work less literary and more realistic, stripping it of its perfect and finished character.

Significance: Cervantism

Although the influence of Cervantes's work is obvious in the procedures and techniques tried out by all subsequent novels, in some European works of the 18th and 19th centuries this resemblance is even more perceptible. It has even been said that every later novel rewrites the Quixote or implicitly contains it. Thus, for example, one of the readers of Don Quixote, the crime novelist Jim Thompson, stated that there are a few novelistic structures, but only one theme: "things are not what they seem." That is an exclusively Cervantine theme.

In Spain, on the contrary, Cervantes did not manage to have followers, apart from María de Zayas in the 17th century and José Francisco de Isla in the 18th. The narrative genre had sunk into great decline because of its contamination with extraneous moralizing elements and the competition it faced, as entertainment, from Baroque theater.

Cervantes would only be reborn as a novelistic model in Spain with the arrival of realism. Benito Pérez Galdós, a great connoisseur of Don Quixote, of which he knew whole chapters by heart, would be an example of this with his abundant literary output. At the same time, the novel gave rise to a large number of translations and studies, giving rise to an entire branch of Hispanic Philology studies, national and international Cervantism.

Continuations of Don Quixote

In addition to the Second Volume by Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda, there are several continuations of the Quixote. The first were three French works: the two parts of the History of the Admirable Don Quixote of La Mancha, written by Filleau de Saint-Martin and Robert Challe, and the anonymous New and True Continuation of the History and Adventures of the Incomparable Don Quixote of La Mancha.

From the 18th century date two of the Spanish continuations of the work, which set out to relate what happened after the death of Don Quixote, such as the Adiciones a la historia del ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha, by Jacinto María Delgado, and the Historia del más famoso escudero Sancho Panza, in two parts (1793 and 1798), by Pedro Gatell.

In 1886, the work of the Galician Luis Otero y Pimentel Semblanzas caballerescas o las nuevas aventuras de don Quijote de la Mancha was published in Havana; its action takes place in Cuba at the end of the 19th century. In the 20th century several more continuations appeared, among them a very amusing one, La nueva salida del valeroso caballero D. Quijote de la Mancha: tercera parte de la obra de Cervantes, by Alonso Ledesma Hernández (Barcelona, 1905), and El pastor Quijótiz, by José Camón Aznar (Madrid, 1969). Al morir don Quijote (2004), the most recent novel continuing the story, is the work of the Spaniard Andrés Trapiello. There are also Hispanic American continuations, among them Capítulos que se le olvidaron a Cervantes, by Juan Montalvo, and Don Quijote en América, o sea la cuarta salida del ingenioso Hidalgo de La Mancha, by Don Tulio Febres Cordero, a book published in 1905 (commemorative edition of 2005, ULA).

The place in La Mancha

The first words of the novel Don Quixote of La Mancha are:

In a place in La Mancha, whose name I do not care to remember, there lived not long ago an hidalgo of the kind with a lance in the rack, an old buckler, a lean nag and a swift greyhound.

But in reality those first words are "Idle reader": this is the address with which the "Prologue..." begins, before the preliminary poems. In 2004, a multidisciplinary team of academics from the Complutense University of Madrid, disobeying Cervantes's own indication (expressed in several places) to leave unwritten the name of Alonso Quijano's fictitious "place," carried out a study to deduce the exact spot in La Mancha. They used nothing more than the distances to various towns and places described by Cervantes in his novel, which took the form of days and nights traveled on horseback by Don Quixote. Assuming that the place lies in the district of Campo de Montiel, and that the speed of Rocinante and Sancho's Rucio was between 30 and 35 km per day's journey, they concluded that Don Quixote's town of origin was Villanueva de los Infantes.^[23]^[24] However, Villanueva de los Infantes was a villa, not a lugar (the topographical designation that falls between aldea and villa), so it could well be Miguel Esteban or any other place near El Toboso or, more exactly, none or all of them, because it is a fictitious place.

Don Quixote in the rest of the world

Hispanic America

Francisco Rodríguez Marín discovered that most of the first edition of Don Quixote had ended up in the Indies. At festivities held because he had been appointed Viceroy of Peru, the Marquis of Montesclaros alluded to Cervantes's masterpiece. The Quixote and other works by Cervantes appear in the shipments of books to Buenos Aires during the 17th and 18th centuries. In the novel La Quijotita y su prima, by the Mexican José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi (1776–1827), the Cervantine influence is evident. The Ecuadorian essayist Juan Montalvo (1832–1889) composed a continuation of the work with the ingenious title Capítulos que se le olvidaron a Cervantes (Chapters Cervantes Forgot), and the Cuban Luis Otero y Pimentel wrote another titled Semblanzas caballerescas o las nuevas aventuras de don Quijote de la Mancha, whose action unfolds in a Cuba identified by the protagonist with the name Ínsula Encantada (Enchanted Isle). Another canonical essayist, José Enrique Rodó, read the discovery, conquest and colonization of America in a quixotic key, and Simón Bolívar, who one day gave the mock order to shoot Don Quixote so that no Peruvian would ever imitate him, came to utter, as the hour of his death drew near and with more than one disillusionment behind him, these astonishing words: "The three greatest fools have been Jesus Christ, Don Quixote and I." It is not surprising, then, that Rafael Obligado, in his poem El alma de don Quijote, identifies Bolívar and San Martín with the Knight of the Sorrowful Countenance. Also, from the Venezuelan Andes, the writer from Mérida Tulio Febres Cordero wrote Don Quijote en América: o sea la cuarta salida del ingenioso hidalgo de La Mancha, published in the same city, by the Tip. El Lápiz, in 1905 (reissued again on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of its publication).

One of the most important Hispanic American Cervantists was the Chilean José Echeverría, and Rubén Darío offered a decadent version of the myth in his short story DQ, set in the last days of the Spanish colonial empire, as well as in the Letanías a nuestro señor Don Quijote, included in his Cantos de vida y esperanza (1905). The Costa Rican Carlos Gagini wrote a brief tale called "Don Quijote se va", and the Cuban Enrique José Varona the lecture titled "Cervantes". The Argentine poet Evaristo Carriego wrote the long poem Por el alma de Don Quijote, which takes part in the widespread sanctification of the quixotic character. On the other hand, Alberto Gerchunoff (1884–1950) and Manuel Mujica Lainez (1910–1984) are regular cultivators of what has come to be called the Cervantine gloss. The Cervantine influence has been observed in works of Argentine gauchesque literature such as Martín Fierro, by José Hernández, and Don Segundo Sombra, by Ricardo Güiraldes. The Colombian historian and jurist Ignacio Rodríguez Guerrero published in Pasto his book Los tipos delincuentes del Quijote, a study that presents the various types of delinquents and terrorists pursued by the laws of their time.^[25] The Cervantine influence is perceptible in Enrique Larreta's great historical novel La gloria de Don Ramiro, and Jorge Luis Borges has a relationship with fiction as complex as that of Cervantes, for it is no accident that he read the work from childhood and glossed it in essays and poems, and he also drew on it to write the short story "Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote", included in his anthology Ficciones.

Cervantes is present in the great works of the Latin American Boom, such as The Lost Steps, by Alejo Carpentier, and One Hundred Years of Solitude, by Gabriel García Márquez.

The Quixote was banned in Chile during the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet. The dictator saw in Cervantes's book "a defense of freedom inconvenient to his interests",^[26] as well as "a plea in defense of personal freedom and an attack on conventional authority".^[27]

United Kingdom

*Don Quixote in England. A comedy. As it is acted at the New Theatre in the Hay-Market* (1734), by Henry Fielding.

The English translation was the first translation of the first part of Don Quixote made in Europe, thanks to Thomas Shelton (in 1612), who later also did the second; although his translation has errors, it has great liveliness. More accurate, however, would be that of Charles Jarvis in 1742, but at the cost of the great inspiration of his predecessor. English Cervantism is also owed two of the first critical contributions to establishing the text of Don Quixote in its original language during the 18th century: the 1738 edition, extremely luxurious and beautifully illustrated besides, whose text was prepared by Pedro Pineda, and that of John Bowle in 1781. The mark of Cervantes's work was almost as deep in England as in Spain. Even in the theater of the 17th century: Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher staged in 1611 a heroic-burlesque drama titled The Knight of the Burning Pestle, inspired by the first part, and it was translated as early as 1612 by Thomas Shelton; shortly afterward, Shakespeare and Fletcher himself wrote in 1613 another work on the "Story of Cardenio" included in Don Quixote, Cardenio, which has been lost. Hudibras, by Samuel Butler, is also inspired by Don Quixote as a reaction against Puritanism. In 1687 a new translation was made, that of John Milton's nephew, John Philipps, which achieved enormous circulation, although it was followed by the 18th-century translations of Anthony Motteux (1700), Charles Jarvis (1724) and Tobias Smollet (1755).

There are traces of Don Quixote in Robinson Crusoe, by Daniel Defoe, and in Gulliver's Travels (1726), by Jonathan Swift, and, even more so, in the works of Henry Fielding: he wrote Don Quixote in England (1734), and one of the characters of his novel Joseph Andrews, written, according to the author, "in the manner of Cervantes", is Abraham Adams, "a quixotic 18th-century parson", in whom a kind of sanctification of the Cervantine hero begins. The novelist Tobias Smollet showed the imprint of the novel, which he had translated, in his novels Sir Launcelot Greaves and Humphry Clinker. Laurence Sterne was a brilliant disciple of Cervantes in his Tristram Shandy. Charlotte Lennox published in 1752 her The Female Quixote, and Jane Austen experienced its influence in her very famous Northanger Abbey, as late as 1818. The creator of the Romantic historical novel, the Scotsman Walter Scott, saw himself as a kind of Don Quixote. Lord Byron believes he sees in his Don Juan the cause of the decline of Spain in Don Quixote, since in his view this book had made the chivalric virtues disappear in that country. William Wordsworth, in Book V of his The Prelude (1850), synthesizes a new Don Quixote in his hermit, and another Lake poet, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, taking up ideas of the German Romantics, comes to consider Don Quixote the personification of two opposing tendencies, the soul and common sense, poetry and prose.

Finally, the masters of the English Romantic essay, Charles Lamb and William Hazlitt, devoted still-fresh critical pages to this classic work of world literature. In the realism of the Victorian period, Charles Dickens, for example, imitated the novel in The Pickwick Papers (1836–1837), where Mr. Pickwick represents Don Quixote and his inseparable Sam Weller Sancho Panza; his Cervantism went so far as to make the character of Fagin in his Oliver Twist a kind of Monipodio; his rival, William Makepeace Thackeray, imitated the novel in his The Newcomes, as did George Gissing, who in his work The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft has his protagonist ask to read Don Quixote on his deathbed. At the end of the 19th century three new translations appeared, that of Duffield (1881), that of Ormsby (1885) and that of Watt (1888). James Fitzmaurice-Kelly would later collaborate with Ormsby on the first critical edition of the Spanish text (London, 1898–1899), and they are by then what may be called members of what has come to be known as international Cervantism.

English "quixotism" continues through the 20th century. Gilbert Keith Chesterton recalls Cervantes at the end of his poem "Lepanto", and in his posthumous novel The Return of Don Quixote he turns the librarian Michael Herne into Alonso Quijano. Graham Greene takes up Fielding's Cervantine tradition in his Monsignor Quixote through the protagonist, parish priest of El Toboso, who believes he descends from the Cervantine hero. W. H. Auden considers, on the other hand, the Quixote–Sancho pair the greatest of the pairings between spirit and nature, whose relationship consists of what he calls Christian neighborliness.

United States

Among the first American readers of the novel was the Founding Father Thomas Jefferson, humanist and scholar, as well as politician and third President of the nation. Don Quixote was one of his favorite readings^[28] and he owned a copy in Spanish of the 1781 edition of the Royal Spanish Academy, which is currently preserved in the Library of Congress of the United States.

The influence of Don Quixote has been noted in Herman Melville's Moby-Dick. Mark Twain was also an admirer of the novel and takes up aspects of the novel in Huckleberry Finn;^[29] William Faulkner declared that he reread Cervantes's work every year, and its mark is also acknowledged by authors such as Saul Bellow, whose first and most acclaimed work, The Adventures of Augie March (1935), owes it a great deal; Thornton Wilder, in Heaven's My Destination (1934); and John Kennedy Toole, in A Confederacy of Dunces.^[30] As a critic, Vladimir Nabokov, however, did not manage to understand the work, and, on the other hand, the influence of Cervantes is evident, though hardly studied, in more recent authors such as Jim Thompson, William Saroyan or Paul Auster. The impact of Don Quixote even appears in science fiction novels. For example, Rocinante becomes a spaceship, the windmills a metaphor of war and Julie Mao a new Dulcinea in Leviathan Wakes (2011), by James S. A. Corey.^[31] The recent translation into a less archaic English, that of Grossmann, has popularized the work again in the United States, where, it is true, it had never declined thanks to adaptations such as the musical Man of La Mancha. The important critic Harold Bloom has devoted pages and books of comparative literature to the work.

Germany and Benelux

In the Netherlands, the land of windmills, Don Quixote was widely read as a satirical work about the Spain that had confronted the Protestant power, its rival on the seas. Pieter Arentz Langedijk, an important author of the first half of the 18th century, wrote a comedy that is still performed today, Don Quixote at Camacho's Wedding (1699). The Hispanist Barber van de Pol translated the work anew into Dutch in 1997 with great success.

In Germany the influence of Don Quixote was late and smaller than that of authors such as Baltasar Gracián or the picaresque novel during the 17th and 18th centuries, in which the influence of French rationalism predominated. The first partial translation (containing 22 chapters) appeared in Frankfurt in 1648, under the title Don Kichote de la Mantzscha, Das ist: Juncker Harnisch auß Fleckenland / Aus Hispanischer Spraach in hochteutsche ubersetzt; the translator was Pahsch Basteln von der Sohle. Bertuch published a translation in 1775, but already in 1764 Christoph Martin Wieland had published, in imitation of Cervantes, his Don Sylvio von Rosalva, which came to constitute the model of the modern German novel (Der Sieg der Natur über die Schwärmerei oder die Abenteuer des Don Sylvio von Rosalva, Ulm, 1764). Herder, Schiller and Goethe would echo the great Cervantine novel and the works of Pedro Calderón de la Barca. Romanticism, indeed, meant the acclimatization of Cervantism, Calderonism and Gracianism in Germany: the now-classic translations of Ludwig Tieck and Soltau saw the light. The whole work of Cervantes, and not only Don Quixote, was studied by the brothers August Wilhelm and Friedrich von Schlegel, the aforementioned poet Tieck and the philosopher Schelling. This roster of Cervantists is completed with Veronica Veit, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, Jean Paul Richter and Bouterwek, in what constitutes the first generation of German Romantic Cervantists. They would be followed by the philosophers Solger, Hegel and Schopenhauer, as well as the poets Joseph von Eichendorff and E. T. A. Hoffmann.

The general vision of the German Romantic Cervantists, already sketched out by August Wilhelm von Schlegel, consists in perceiving in the knight a personification of the forces that struggle within man, of the eternal conflict between idealism and prosaism, between imagination and reality, between verse and prose. Heinrich Heine's prologue to the French edition of Don Quixote also points in that direction; one should not forget, moreover, his sinister prophecy that peoples who burn books will end up burning men, contained in his dramatic piece Almansor. For this author, Cervantes, Shakespeare and Goethe constitute the poetic triumvirate of modernity. It was cited by Arthur Schopenhauer as one of the four best novels ever written, together with Tristram Shandy, La Nouvelle Héloïse and Wilhelm Meister.^[32] On the other hand, Franz Grillparzer endorses the judgment of Lord Byron on Spanish decline, and Richard Wagner admires in the book the resurrection of the medieval heroic spirit. Richard Strauss renewed the theme with the symphonic poem Don Quixote. Fantastic Variations on a Theme of Knightly Character (1897). In the 20th century, Franz Kafka composed his apologue The Truth about Sancho Panza and, in May 1934, the novelist Thomas Mann chose Tieck's translation of Don Quixote as his traveling companion to the United States, an experience recorded in his essay Voyage with Don Quixote, in which the author sketches a defense of the values of European culture threatened by a rising fascism. Finally, the Swiss theologian Hans Urs von Balthasar, in some memorable pages of his work Glory (1985–1989), sees in the comedy of Don Quixote Christian comedy and ridicule: "To undertake at every step, modestly, the impossible." The illustrious Hispanist and Cervantist Friedrich Schürr also leans in that direction in his 1951 lecture Don Quixote as an Expression of the Western Soul ("Der Don Quijote als Ausdruck der abendländischen Seele").

Russia

Unamuno stated that the countries that had best understood Don Quixote were England and Russia. It is true that in the Slavic country it enjoyed great prestige, circulation and literary influence, but it is also true that for its most eminent authors, such as Fyodor Dostoevsky or Leo Tolstoy, the true Don Quixote is the one of the last chapter, Alonso Quijano the Good.

As Vsevolod Bagno recounts in El Quijote vivido por los rusos (Madrid: CSIC — Diputación de Ciudad Real, 1995), Peter I had already read the work, as can be deduced from an anecdote included in Nartov's Tales about Peter the Great:

The Tsar, setting out for Dunkirk, upon seeing a great number of windmills laughed and said to Pavel Yaguzhinsky: "If Don Quixote were here, he would have a lot of work."

In the mid-18th century the opening of the country to the West allowed a greater and less selective knowledge of Cervantes's work. The scientist and writer Mikhail Lomonosov owned a copy of the Quixote in the German translation of 1734. Vasily Trediakovsky, in his Dialogue between a Foreigner and a Russian on Old and New Orthography, recommends that dialogues be as natural as those held by the knight-errant Don Quixote and his squire Sancho Panza, "in spite of their extraordinary adventures", and finds nothing similar in Russian literature. Sumarokov, in his article "On the Reading of Novels" (1759), distinguished Don Quixote from the whole avalanche of adventure novels that fell upon Russia, valuing it as an excellent satire. Alexander Radishchev, in one of the masterpieces of 18th-century Russian literature, Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow (1790), compares one of the events of the journey to the battle between the hero and the flock of sheep. In other works of his this mark appears more clearly. Vasily Lyovshin had a knight travel with a Sancho Panza-like friend in Evening Hours, or the Ancient Tales of the Drevlian Slavs (1787). At the end of the 18th century there is a quixote who passes from one foolishness (so it is said) to another, also in an anonymous novel, Anisimich. A New Don Quixote; the usual purpose of these works was "to bring to light the petty passions of the rural gentry".

The fabulist Ivan Krylov, in a letter of his Spirits' Mail, compares the protagonist of Knyazhnin's tragedy Rozlav with the Knight of the Sorrowful Countenance; in other passages it is clear that he regarded him as an antihero, although one with great ideals. Ivan Dmitriev composed the first work inspired by the character, his apologue Don Quixote, in which quixotism is interpreted as an extravagance. No less than the Tsarina Catherine II commissioned a selection of Sancho's proverbs and composed a Tale of the Sadly Famous Paladin Kosometovich to ridicule the quixotism of her enemy Gustav III of Sweden; what is more, a comic opera inspired by this tale was staged, The Sadly Famous Paladin Kosometovich (1789), with music by the Spanish composer Vicente Martín y Soler, who lived in Saint Petersburg during the years of his greatest fame. In it the mark of Cervantine iconography is evident.

In the 18th and 19th centuries Russian intellectuals preferably read Don Quixote in French, or even in Spanish, and preferred foreign translations to the versions in Russian, which were made from those same translations and not directly from the original; the book was so common that at least one could be found in every town, according to the aforementioned Dmitriev. The general disdain for the Russian language had not a little to do with this, until Alexander Pushkin gave it true literary rank.

In the second half of the 18th century two incomplete versions translated from French appeared in Russian; the first is from 1769, from the French translation by Filleau de Saint-Martin, and was produced by Ignaty Antonovich Teils, a German teacher at a military school for cadets of the nobility; although he is considered a womanizer in the adventure at the inn with Maritornes, blind in one eye and not very sound in the other, and he speaks of his "fertile follies", it sometimes manages to be adequate. The next one was based on the French adaptation of 1746 and was produced by Nikolai Osipov in 1791; it is moreover a version enriched with scenes that Cervantes never wrote and is in general a very vulgar adaptation. In every Russian library it was one of those indispensable books, either in French or in the translation from French made by the pre-Romantic Zhukovsky. At that time the protagonist was understood as a caricatured character, but the German Romantic interpretation soon appeared.

M. N. Muriatov identifies himself with Don Quixote as a consequence of his disillusionments and his reasoning about the separation between reality and ideals, and he shows it in his letters to his sister F. N. Lunina; the 18th-century interpretation is not, then, the only one. There is also a sentimental interpretation in The Answer to Turgenev (1812), by Konstantin Batyushkov, one of the most important Russian poets and a precursor of Alexander Pushkin, where Don Quixote "spends his time dreaming / lives with chimeras, / chats with ghosts / and with the pensive moon". Within this sentimental interpretation, Nikolay Karamzin is the one who received the deepest impression, which already appears in a letter of 1793 addressed to Ivan Dmitriev, in the poem To a Poor Poet (1796) and, above all, in A Knight of Our Time (1803); the protagonist compares himself to Don Quixote because his inclination to reading and his natural impressionability trained him in the "quixotism of the imagination", and dangers and heroic friendship become his favorite daydreams:

You, indolent phlegmatics, who do not live but sleep and weep from the urge to yawn, surely never dreamed like this in your childhood. Nor you, judicious egoists, who do not grow fond of men but cling to them out of prudence as long as the relationship is useful to you, and, no doubt, withdraw your hand if men become an obstacle.

Ivan Turgenev stated in 1860 that there was no good translation of the Quixote in Russian, and it is regrettable that he did not fulfill his repeated promise to translate it completely, which he had set himself as early as 1853 and which he was still determined to fulfill in 1877; the playwright Alexander Ostrovsky had already translated the Interludes and wanted to translate some chapters of the work; the fact is that Turgenev deliberately ignored the translation of Vasily Zhukovsky, Pushkin's teacher, which he began in 1803 and published in six volumes between 1804 and 1806. This was because it did not correspond to the notion of translation held by Turgenev; but Zhukovsky's work was crucial for the development of Russian prose in the 19th century, since it was produced by a great writer, of a level comparable to that of Ludwig von Tieck, Jean-Pierre Claris de Florian or Tobias Smollet. It offers a psychological-philosophical interpretation of the work, in which the protagonist is undoubtedly the Knight of the Sorrowful Countenance. As he did not know Spanish, he used Florian's French version, which is quite good, since Voltaire's nephew knew the language well and had been in Spain and dealt with the Spanish men of the Enlightenment; but he also knew, although he did not use it, Tieck's German version (1799), which already offered the Romantic interpretation of the character. However, he relied on Florian's well-documented prologue to guide his translation, since he was a more prestigious man than the then-upstart Tieck. To begin with, he omits entire chapters and abridges the long passages, the naturalistic episodes that did not suit the taste of the time and the interpolated stories that diverted attention; of his own he contributes a folkloric accent that the French version lacked and replaces the Sancho Panza-style paremiology, which Florian renders literally, with equivalent Russian proverbs, and to appreciate the merit of his translation in these details it suffices to compare it with Osipov's. In general, Zhukovsky's translation avoids the episodes in which the hero is diminished and accentuates the poetic elements. Zhukovsky's retranslation had a second edition in 1815, without significant changes apart from punctuation, which is better than in the first, spelling and the cleaning up of errata. This version delighted Pushkin and was shamelessly imitated by that of S. Chaplette, also based on Florian's (Saint Petersburg, 1831); by then a certain preference for Tieck's more precise German translation was already being felt, and a direct version from Spanish was beginning to seem inevitable; it arrived in the period of Realism, when the translations of K. P. Masalsky (1838) and V. A. Karelin (1866) were published; but the popularization of the myth in Romanticism came mainly through Zhukovsky's version.

Cervantes is present in Alexander Pushkin, Gogol, Ivan Turgenev, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Nikolai Leskov, Mikhail Bulgakov and Vladimir Nabokov, to name only some of the great Russian authors.

Alexander Pushkin had in his library a Quixote in Spanish published in Paris in 1835, and he learned the language in 1831 and 1832 to read it in the original; there are also preserved reverse translations of La Gitanilla from its French version into Castilian, made to compare the result with the Cervantine original; he also encouraged Gogol to undertake a narrative work of great scope in the manner of Cervantes, and so Gogol composed Dead Souls. Turgenev, in his lecture Hamlet and Don Quixote, compares the reflective and irresolute Hamlet with the unreflective and bold Don Quixote, and finds nobility in both characters. But the influence on Fyodor Dostoevsky was deeper; he comments on the work many times in his correspondence and in his A Writer's Diary (1876), where he refers to it as an essential piece of world literature and as belonging "to the set of books that reward humanity once every hundred years"; finally he writes:

In the whole world there is no deeper and stronger work of fiction than this one. To this day it represents the supreme and highest expression of human thought, the bitterest irony that man can formulate, and if the world were to end and someone asked men: "Let us see, what have you made of your life and what definitive conclusion have you drawn from it?", men could silently show the Quixote and then say: "This is my conclusion about life and... could you condemn me for it?"

From the Russian writer's point of view, the novel is a conclusion about life. His first mention of the work appears in a letter of 1847, but it was in 1860 that it came to truly obsess the writer; he imitated it in The Idiot, whose protagonist, Prince Myshkin, is as idealistic as the hero of La Mancha but, stripped of ridiculous heroism, is in reality the final character of the work, Alonso Quijano the Good, and an imitator of Jesus Christ; his monologue "To the Health of the Sun" is clearly inspired by the discourse on the Golden Age. Dostoevsky wrote in his A Writer's Diary that "books like that one are no longer written. You will see in Don Quixote, on every page, the most arcane secrets of the human soul revealed". On the other hand, in 1877, the chapter of A Writer's Diary "A Lie Is Saved by a Lie" deliberately imitates the Cervantine style, to the point that an episode imagined by Dostoevsky passed for genuine Cervantes for a long time.

Nikolai Leskov's novel Three Men of God is a curious precursor of Graham Greene's Monsignor Quixote; its protagonist, Prior Saweli Tuberosov, is an idealist who, having reached fifty, resolves to tell the truth, and struggles with the harsh and stark adverse circumstances of his surroundings in the company of a Sancho, the deacon Akhilla, and of a Sansón Carrasco, Tuganov; in his inflexibility he becomes incomprehensible and often ridiculous to others, and in the end he is deprived of speech: he is forbidden to preach any more sermons and, unable to fulfill his destiny just like the Cervantine hero, he dies of grief. But the influence of Cervantes extends even to the type of hero that Leskov presents in almost all his novels, and particularly in A Decayed Family, whose protagonist is a recognizable, thin and poor landowner named Dormidont Rogozin, accompanied by his inseparable squire Zinka, in whose company he roams the surroundings "sniffing out wrongs". His novels The Solitary Thinker and The Unmercenary Engineers also clearly show the influence of Don Quixote.

Although for Tolstoy the Cervantine novel did not have as much importance as for Turgenev, Dostoevsky or Leskov, the truth is that its mark is perceptible and visible; in What Is Art? he declares Don Quixote his favorite novel for its "inner content", for its "good vital art of the world"; in the drafts of this work his intention is clear: it is a work that expresses the noblest feelings for all ages, understandable to all; in some of his works he takes up the Cervantine legacy; mainly in his novel Resurrection, where he raises the question of who is mad, the world or the hero, and where Katerina Maslova is an Aldonza who, when courted by the Prince who dishonored her and thereby began her career as a prostitute, does not want to be the hero's Dulcinea, in which there are echoes of the Symbolist poet Sogolub; and there are also echoes of the enchantments and of the episode of the galley slaves.

The poets of Russian Symbolism, above all Fyodor Sologub, experienced the seduction of the myth of Dulcinea. He wrote an essay on the subject, Don Quixote's Dream, in which he states that by rejecting Aldonza and accepting her as Dulcinea, Don Quixote is fulfilling the ultimate aspiration of all lyric poetry, a feat more lyrical than chivalric: turning reality into art, into something that can be endured. The quixotic attitude is a synonym for "lyrical notion of reality". This idea of a lyrical feat recurs in other works of his, such as The Demons and the Poets and the prologue to the play The Victory of Death, or in the work Hostages of Life. After the figure of the hallucinating madman appears in his novel The Petty Demon, the theme of Dulcinea reappears in his verses of 1922 to 1924, dedicated to his wife, Anastasiya Nikolayevna Chebotarevskaya, who committed suicide in 1921. From Sogolub the myth of Dulcinea passed to other Symbolist poets, such as Igor Severyanin or Alexander Blok; the latter deepens it and transforms it in a very original way in Verses about the Beautiful Lady.

After the Revolution, Mikhail Bulgakov, one of the writers not so much persecuted as tolerated by Stalin, like Boris Pasternak himself, and therefore fairly lucky, since he was not a Soviet writer, was able to survive by being allowed to work as an assistant stage director in the theater and to feed himself by producing continuous translations, like Anna Akhmatova and Pasternak; he infused the quixotic philosophy of struggle despite full awareness of defeat, which can be related to Unamuno's quixotism, into his masterpiece, the novel The Master and Margarita; in the years of the height of Stalinist repression, in 1937, he writes in a letter that he goes on composing plays, even though they will never be staged or published, out of sheer quixotism, and vows not to do it again, although he does it again, studying the work of the "king of Spanish writers" with such passion that some of his letters to his third wife, Elena, are written partly in Spanish and that, as he himself admits, "he was assaulting the Quixote". His modest Quixote does not clash with his surroundings; he is a normal person who battles like everyone else; only at the end does he see himself as a hero on dying, when the author himself was also already dying:

Ah, Sancho! The harm caused by his steel is insignificant. Nor did he disfigure my soul with his blows. But I am afraid to think that he cured my soul and, in curing it, took it away without exchanging me for another. He took from me the most precious gift with which man is endowed, he took my freedom! Sancho, the world is full of evil, but the worst of all is captivity! He chained me, Sancho! Look: the sun is cut in half, the earth rises and rises and devours it. The earth draws near to the captive! It will swallow me, Sancho!

Anatol Lunacharsky (1875–1933), Russian man of letters and politician, first commissar of education and culture after the October Revolution (1917), and protector of Meyerhold and Stanislavski, wrote some historical dramas, and among them a Don Quixote Liberated (1923). Vladimir Nabokov, however, in his Lectures on Don Quixote, reduces the greatness of the work solely to that of the main character.

Eastern Europe

The first translation into Bulgarian was made from a Russian translation and as late as 1882, barely four years after Bulgaria reappeared on the map of Europe. Its main scholar was Efrem Karamfilov. But it is in 20th-century Bulgarian poetry that the figure of the knight appears most as a symbol of the tireless fighter, champion of goodness, courage, faith and justice, in works by authors such as Konstantin Velichkov, Hristo Fotev, Asen Raztsvetnikov, Damyan Damyanov, Nikolai Rainov, Parvan Stefanov, Blaga Dimitrova and Petar Velchev.

The first complete translation into Czech was the work of J. B. Pichl (1866, first part) and K. Stefan (1868, second part), although as early as 1620 Cardinal Dietrichstein had read it in Spanish, since he had been educated in the Iberian Peninsula. It was widely read in Bohemia and was very popular in the 18th century, but more in Italian and French versions than in other languages. In the 20th century, Milan Kundera states, like Octavio Paz, that humor is not something innate in man, but a conquest of modern times thanks to Cervantes and his invention, the modern novel.

The first translation of Don Quixote into Polish dates from 1781–1786 and is owed to Count Franciszek Aleksander Podoski, based on a French version. For the Polish men of the Enlightenment it was a fundamentally comic work, not only pleasant to read but also useful for its criticism of the chivalric novels, pernicious to good sense. That is the interpretation of Bishop Ignacy Krasicki and of Duke Czartoryski, who, however, already perceives the complexity of the work in his Reflections on Polish Literature of 1801. In the 1840s, the polymath Edward Dembowski delved into the tragic German interpretation of Don Quixote as a symbol of the struggle of the ideal against the harsh reality of the surrounding world. The figure of the knight is found in the work of the great Polish Romantic poets, Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Słowacki and Cyprian Kamil Norwid, as well as in the masterpiece of the realist novelist Bolesław Prus, The Doll. In the 20th century, one should highlight the Don Quixote of Bolesław Leśmian, which represents the tragedy of the loss of faith; the Judgment on Don Quixote of Antoni Słonimski, where the episode of Sancho's government of the Ínsula Barataria is adapted to satirize totalitarianisms; Don Quixote and the Nannies, by Maria Kuncewiczowa, chronicle of a journey to Spain in search of Don Quixote; and Another Beauty, by Adam Zagajewski, with Don Quixote in the library.

Between 1881 and 1890, 61 chapters of the Quixote were published in Romanian, by Stefan Vîrgolici. The first complete translation into Romanian was made in 1965 by Ion Frunzetti and Edgar Papu. In 2005 the Instituto Cervantes of Bucharest promoted a new translation, carried out by the Romanian Hispanist Sorin Marculescu.

France

In France, Don Quixote did not exert as extensive an influence as in England or Russia, although its imprint was also generous in great works and authors of the 19th century, and many nations came to know the work through French translations or retranslations from the text in that language. The first translation came barely a year after Shelton's English one, in 1614, by César Oudin. In 1618 the second part was translated by François de Rosset, and from 1639 both parts were issued together. It is the first translation into French, to be followed by several dozen more, among which those of Filleau de Saint-Martin (1677–1678) and of the chevalier Jean-Pierre Claris de Florian (1777) stand out, the latter a Hispanist educated in his childhood in Spain and nephew of Voltaire, whose translation would be widely disseminated throughout Europe.

Filleau de Saint-Martin's translation was published under the title History of the Admirable Don Quixote of La Mancha with the addition of a continuation written by the translator himself, for which he altered the ending of the original work and kept Don Quixote alive and able to launch into new adventures. In turn, this continuation was extended by another French writer of some renown, Robert Challe. The series of continuations does not end there: an unknown author lengthened Cervantes's work with another supplementary part titled New and True Continuation of the History and Adventures of the Incomparable Don Quixote of La Mancha.

Simonde de Sismondi laid the first stone of the Romantic interpretation of the hero. Louis Viardot translated the work very faithfully between 1836 and 1837. Chateaubriand saw himself as a Cervantes and a Quixote, and in his Itinerary from Paris to Jerusalem (1811) he extols the Knight of the Sorrowful Countenance, who also occupies his place in The Genius of Christianity as the noblest, the bravest, the kindest and the least mad of mortals. There is a good deal of Cervantes in that frustrated Romantic soldier who was Alfred de Vigny. The travelers Prosper Mérimée and Théophile Gautier filled their travel diaries with Cervantine allusions. For the critic Sainte-Beuve, Don Quixote is a book that begins by constituting a satire of the books of chivalry and ends by becoming a mirror of human life. Victor Hugo, who spent some of his childhood years in Spain as the son of General Hugo, considers Cervantes the poet of the contrast between the sublime and the comic, the ideal and the grotesque, and acknowledges the influence of La gitanilla in his novel Notre-Dame de Paris. Henri Beyle, known as Stendhal, who was ten years old when he read Don Quixote for the first time, wrote that "the discovery of that book was perhaps the greatest epoch of my life".

Honoré de Balzac acted out Don Quixote almost more in his life than in his writings, and Gustave Flaubert took up this spirit in his two novels, Bouvard et Pécuchet, posthumous and unfinished, whose two main characters go mad reading books they cannot assimilate, and his Madame Bovary, whose protagonist is in reality a quixotic lady who loses her good sense reading trashy sentimental novels, as José Ortega y Gasset already noted ("she is a Quixote in skirts with a minimum of tragedy upon her soul"). Gustave Doré illustrated an edition of Don Quixote with engravings in 1863. Quixotic characters, on the other hand, are Alphonse Daudet's Tartarin de Tarascon and Edmond Rostand's Cyrano de Bergerac. In 1932, Maurice Ravel and Jacques Ibert composed songs on poems by Paul Morand titled Don Quichotte à Dulcinée. In Les oiseaux de lune or The Birds of the Moon (1956), by Marcel Aymé, the inspector of a school acquires, from reading so many novels, the power to transform bores into birds, which seems to be a comic parody of the madness of Don Quixote of La Mancha and of the wizards who transform his disillusionments.

The writer Monique Wittig, on the other hand, in her novel Le voyage sans fin (1985), reworks Cervantes's Quixote by replacing knight and squire with two women. In 1968 Jacques Brel composed and recorded a music album, L'Homme de la Mancha. Other French authors influenced by the Quixote were Léon Bloy, Tailhade, Henri Bergson, Maurice Barrès, Alfred Morel-Fatio, Paul Hazard, André Maurois and André Malraux.

Islamic world

References to Cervantes's character—called Dūn Kījūtī or Dūn Kīshūt—are very common in the contemporary Arab imagination, and above all in its literature. This is usually pointed out as paradoxical, given that the first translations of the Quixote into Arabic were published as late as the 1950s and 1960s.

The first extensive work in Arabic on Cervantes was published in 1947, on the occasion of the fourth centenary of his birth, by the Lebanese Hispanists Nayib Abu Malham and Musa Abbud in Tétouan, the capital of what was then Spanish Morocco, under the title Cervantes, Prince of Spanish Letters. It is an essay of more than four hundred pages that aroused so much interest in literary and intellectual circles that the Arabic section of UNESCO commissioned the two Hispanists to translate the Quixote. That translation was begun, but for unknown reasons it was never published. Between 1951 and 1966 another translation was made in Morocco that also remained unpublished (the manuscript is preserved), carried out by the alim Tuhami Wazzani, who published some chapters in the newspaper he directed, Rif.

The work of Abu Malham and Abbud served to increase the interest of Arab intellectuals in Cervantes's work, which they accessed through its editions in other languages, until in 1956 the translation of the First Part of the Quixote was published in Cairo. It was necessary to wait, however, until 1965 to see the complete work published, in a new translation, this time by the Hispanist Abd al-Rahman Badawi, who contextualized the novel in an intense preliminary study. Five years earlier a children's version of the Quixote had been published in the Egyptian capital that went on being reprinted for decades, which gives an idea of how quickly the adventures of the hidalgo spread. Badawi's translation has been the classic translation, the most widely read, at least until the appearance in 2002 of two new translations, one again Egyptian, by the Hispanist Sulayman al-Attar, and another by the Syrian Rifaat Atfe.

Before the translations, however, the novel had been the subject of various critical studies, apart from the aforementioned one by Abu Malham and Abbud, which contributed to awakening literary interest in the figure of Don Quixote. This figure is fully integrated into the Arab imagination: many see in quixotism a symbol of the contemporary course of the Arab peoples, charged with idealism and rhetoric but powerless before the crushing force of reality. References to Don Quixote appear frequently in the work of writers such as Nizar Qabbani, Naguib Surur, Yusuf al-Jal, Mahmoud Darwish, Assia Djebbar, Badr Shakir al-Sayyab, Gamal al-Guitani and many others.

On the other hand, the Quixote, as well as the rest of Cervantes's work, is also the object of special interest and study because of its many references to Islam and to the Morisco world, which are more visible to Arab-Muslim readers.

At the UN

Volume XV of the literary journal of the United Nations (UN), Ex Tempore (ISSN 1020-6604), of December 2004, is devoted to the Quixote, with a prologue by Alfred de Zayas and the poem In Praise of Folly by Zaki Ergas, both members of the Swiss PEN Club.

Editions of Don Quixote

Editions in Castilian

Until the Age of Enlightenment, the editions of the masterpiece of the Spanish Golden Age generally degraded the text, except for the very carefully prepared Brussels edition of the first part by Roger Velpius in 1607. The classic editions of Don Quixote in the 18th century are usually considered to be Vida y hechos del ingenioso hidalgo Don Quixote de la Mancha, London: J. and R. Tonson, 1738, 4 vols., an edition published by Lord Carteret illustrated with 68 exquisite copperplate engravings and dedicated to the Countess of Montijo, wife of the Spanish ambassador during the reign of George II of Great Britain; the text was entrusted to an enthusiastic Cervantist, the Sephardic Jew residing in London Pedro Pineda. It was a critical and scholarly work worthy of the Age of Enlightenment, and Gregorio Mayans y Siscar included in it a Life of Cervantes that is considered the first rigorous biography of the author. Stung in its pride, the Royal Spanish Academy produced another in four volumes (1780), which was reissued several times with numerous modifications and corrections, and in which the editors included a critical introduction with a biography of the author; an essay on the novel, Análisis del Quijote, which establishes the classic interpretation of the work as the happy conjunction of two perspectives, two literary traditions and two worldviews; a chronological-historical study of the adventures of Don Quixote; a series of engravings; and a map of Spain to follow the itinerary of Don Quixote. Vicente de los Ríos, the main person responsible for this edition of the Royal Spanish Academy, corrected the textual errors of the previous editions. Once again another English Cervantist, the Anglican Reverend John Bowle, scrupulously examined the text for the first time and purged its errors, including lists of variants, in his 1781 edition, which is also a monument of scholarship and surpasses all the previous ones; Bowle was the first to notice that there were two editions in 1605, to number the lines, to annotate the work systematically and to prepare an index of the work. All later editors took advantage of his scholarship and generous effort, often without acknowledging his contribution. It was followed by the five-volume edition of Don Juan Antonio Pellicer (1797–1798), with abundant notes and attentive to textual variants. On the other hand, Agustín García Arrieta published in France Obras escogidas de Cervantes in ten volumes (Paris, Librería Hispano Francesa de Bossange padre, 1826, reprinted by Firmin Didot, 1827). This great work comprised the Quixote (I–VI), the Exemplary Novels (VII–IX) and the Theater (X). Its edition of the Quixote is perhaps the best up to that time.

In the 19th century came the lengthy and very learnedly annotated edition (it triples the number of Pellicer's notes) of Diego Clemencín (6 vols., 1833–1839); it has, however, not a few defects in the philological field, which the notes of Juan Calderón and Luis de Usoz tried to correct in Cervantes vindicado en 115 pasajes (1854), written mainly by the former; also important are the editions of Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch, one in Argamasilla de Alba, 1863, IV vols., and another in Obras completas de Miguel de Cervantes; Madrid, Imprenta de Manuel Rivadeneyra, 1863; to the latter one may add a group of notes that Hartzenbusch prepared for a second edition that never came about and that were printed under the title Las 1633 notas puestas por... D. J. E. Hartzenbusch a la primera edición de «El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha», Barcelona: Narciso Ramírez, 1874.

At the end of the 19th century Clemente Cortejón ambitiously prepared an edition that he intended to be the first truly critical edition of the work, collating no fewer than 26 different editions, but the author died in 1911 without seeing his work finished; its last volume was produced by Juan Givanel and Juan Suñé Benages and it finally came out in Barcelona (1905–1913) in six volumes, without the promised Cervantine dictionary and with very significant defects, deriving from the author's prejudices against earlier Cervantists such as Clemencín and the scant clarification of his ecdotic and philological criteria; it was, therefore, much disputed by Cervantists, who noticed the irrelevant jumble of many of its notes, the unjustified readings it forced, the errors in claiming credit that belonged to others and the general lack of explanations and justifications for its changes, conjectures and modernized readings, among other reasons that make his edition very awkward to use. After him, the editions prepared by Francisco Rodríguez Marín were very famous (partly because of their author's exclusionary attitude toward other Cervantists); he at least used a methodology, that of positivism, and each edition was more and better annotated than the previous one: that of Clásicos La Lectura in eight volumes (1911–1913); the supposed "critical edition" in six volumes (1916–1917); and the "new critical edition" in seven volumes (1927–1928). The last was reissued posthumously, with corrections and new notes, in ten volumes (1947–1949) under the title Nueva edición crítica con el comento refundido y mejorado y más de mil notas nuevas; however, it carries the methodological burdens of positivism in its excessive accumulation of documentary information and, as the author lacked philological training, they are not true critical editions, since he did not purge the text by comparing all the authorized editions nor even indicate his changes to the text; that of Rudolph Schevill and Adolfo Bonilla y San Martín (1914–1941) has, however, an appropriate philological and ecdotic rigor and extends to the whole known work of Miguel de Cervantes; that of Martín de Riquer (the last one dates from 1996) is the masterpiece of a humanist expert in medieval chivalric life; and that of the Instituto Cervantes, produced by a team directed by Francisco Rico (1998 and 2004), is the latest and therefore the most authoritative because of the large number of sources consulted to purge the text and comment on it. Also important, for various aspects, among a very large number of estimable editions, are those of Emilio Pascual (1975), Juan Bautista Avalle-Arce (1979), John Jay Allen (1984), Vicente Gaos (1987), that of Luis Andrés Murillo (1988), and the various ones, some of them digital, by Florencio Sevilla Arroyo (2001).

In 1987 an edition illustrated by Antonio Saura was published (Don Quijote de la Mancha, Círculo de Lectores, Barcelona, 1987, 2 vols.) with 195 drawings, in pen and India ink (125 of them) and another 70 using mixed techniques.^[33]

In 2005 the Fourth Centenary of El Quijote was celebrated, for which reason the Royal Spanish Academy and the Association of Academies of the Spanish Language promoted a popular edition based on that of Francisco Rico and the Instituto Cervantes, published by Editorial Alfaguara in 500,000 copies.

Editions in other languages

Don Quixote in German

The first translation into German, Don Kichote de la Mantzscha, was made in 1621 by Pahsch Basteln von der Sohle; however, better known today is the translation by Ludwig Tieck of 1799–1801. The translation by Ludwig Braunfels has been considered the most faithful to the original and the most scholarly. In 2008 the work appeared in a new translation by Susanne Lange, which was highly praised by literary critics.

Don Quixote in Asturian

There is a complete version of the Quixote in the Asturian language, translated by Pablo Suárez García, doctor in philology from the University of Oviedo, in 2010; it was deposited in the Museo Cervantino of El Toboso in June 2014 and is available to the visitors of this Museum.^[34]^[35] Although the work could not be published then for lack of funds, the Academia de la Llingua Asturiana showed great interest in publishing it, and it was finally published in 2015 in two volumes.^[36]^[37] In addition, the Asturian writer Esther García López published in 2005 a selection of texts from the Quixote, titled Aventures del Quixote. It was published by Madú and illustrated by the cartoonist Neto.^[38] Furthermore, Pedro Lanza Alfonso published in 2004, with VTP, El Caballeru de la Murnia Figura, a play based on the texts of the Castilian classic.^[39]

Don Quixote in Catalan

The Majorcan Jaume Pujol carried out his unpublished translation between 1835 and 1850. Eduard Tàmaro translated the first part of Don Quixote into the language of Verdaguer (Barcelona: Estampa de Cristófol Miró, 1882). The first practically complete printed translation of the 19th century was made in 1891 by the academician Antoni Bulbena i Tussell under the title L'enginyós cavallier Don Quixot de La Mancha; it was reprinted in 1930 and in 2005. The Majorcan priest Ildefonso Rullán translated it for the first time into the Majorcan dialect (L'enginyós hidalgo Don Quixote de la Mancha, Felanich, Imprenta de Bartoméu Reus, 1905–1906). Octavi Viader, in 1936, also made a translation, and Joaquim Civera i Sormaní made another in Barcelona: Editorial Tarraco, S. A., 1969. However, the only complete translation, which even includes some poems left in Spanish by the previous translators, is that of the Majorcan lawyer and great Cervantist José María Casasayas, who devoted forty-four years to it, rewriting it twenty times; he printed only eight copies of it, which he gave to each of his grandchildren, since no publisher wanted to print it for the general public. It combines the different Catalan dialects and has extensive annotation.

Don Quixote in Chinese

The first versions of the Quixote in Chinese were retranslations and adaptations that were not always faithful.^[40] Theatrical versions premiered for the first time in the 1920s, then in the 1930s, and twice more during Maoism (in 1950 and after the economic reform begun in 1978). Dai Wangshu tried to translate the complete Quixote from the original language, which he knew well, but his manuscript was lost in the war. In 1979, shortly after the end of the Cultural Revolution, the People's Literature publishing house published a direct translation from the original by Yang Jiang, which has been the most widely read to this day, and there are now complete and direct translations by Dong Yansheng (1995, by the Zhejiang Literature and Art publishing house, revised in 2006; the fruit of three years of work, and awarded in 2001 the Lu Xun "Rainbow" Prize for Literary Translation), by Tu Mengchao (1995, by the Yilin publishing house), by Liu Jingsheng (1995, by the Lijiang publishing house), by Tang Minquan (2000, by the Shanxi People's publishing house), by Sun Jiameng (2001, by the October Literature and Art publishing house of Beijing, which received the award for Best Book of Foreign Literature) and by Zhang Guangsen (2001, by the Yiwen publishing house of Shanghai). Cervantism has been a very fruitful current of Hispanism in that country, with scholars such as Zhou Zuoren, Chen Yuan, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai, who argued with one another, and others such as Tan Tao and Qian Liqun. On the other hand, Cervantes influenced writers such as Zhang Tianyi and Fei Ming. In 1996 the People's Literature publishing house published Cervantes's Complete Works in eight volumes. The Chinese translator Yang Jiang translated the entire Quixote into Chinese from the original language for the first time in 1978. In 2009 an adaptation was staged with great success at the National Theater of Beijing, and another version in September of that year directed by Meng Jinghui at the National Center for the Performing Arts at Tiananmen, which combines musical parts with a staging that is experimental and classical at the same time, performed by the actors Guo Tao and Liu Xiaoye. The libretto was written by Meng together with the fellow Chinese playwright Kang He, who had already written a screenplay of the story 10 years earlier.

Don Quixote in Croatian

Noteworthy is the translation by Iso Velikanović into the Croatian language, and by Alexey Reshevnikov into the Russian language.^[41]

Don Quixote in Esperanto

There is a complete translation published in 1977, and several earlier partial attempts, some of a certain interest in themselves.

The first partial version is owed to Vicente Inglada Ors, a polyglot scientist, geologist and member of the Academy of Sciences, who attempted it as early as 1904. Other Esperantists who published versions of some chapters were the Catalan writer Frederic Pujulà i Vallès (1909), the well-known Republican soldier Julio Mangada (1927) and the activist Luis Hernández Lahuerta (1955).

The complete translation had to wait, however, until 1977, when the Esperanto Foundation published the version by Fernando de Diego. The work, with Doré's classic illustrations, has had wide worldwide circulation and considerable prestige among connoisseurs of Esperanto culture.

Don Quixote in Guarani

The Paraguayan poet Félix de Guarania translated the work into Guarani as Kuimba’e katupyry ño Quijote yvyunga, a collection of fragments.

Don Quixote in Hebrew

The first translation of Don Quixote into Hebrew was made in 1958 by Natan Bistrinsky and Nahman Bialik, and in 1994 the translation considered the better of the two was published, by Beatriz and Luis Landau.

Don Quixote in Japanese

Between 1907 and 1917, the Spanish Japanologist Gonzalo Jiménez de la Espada led a group of Hispanists in Tokyo; it included scholars such as Hirosada Nagata, who in 1948 would translate the Quixote into the Japanese language.^[42]

Don Quixote in Quechua

In November 2005, the translation into Southern Quechua was published under the name Yachay sapa wiraqucha dun Qvixote Manchamantan, made by Demetrio Túpac Yupanqui and with illustrations by Sarwa, typical costumbrista works on small boards. The edition was presented at the book fair of Guadalajara.^[43]

Don Quixote in Russian

Although the influence of Don Quixote on Russian literature and culture was notable, a good translation took quite a long time to appear. In fact, the English, German and French versions circulated in the most cultivated circles. The first Russian edition of the Quixote appeared in 1769: Istoria o slavnom La-Manjskom rytsare Don Kishote, and it covered only the first twenty-seven chapters; the translator was Ignaty Teils (1744–1815), a German teacher connected with the Enlightenment circles of the well-known progressive and Freemason Nikolay Novikov; it was based on the French translation by Filleau de Saint-Martin. Twenty-two years later a new translation appeared in Saint Petersburg, which was reissued in 1812 in Moscow under the title Don Kishot La-Manjsky; its author was the sworn interpreter Nikolai Osipov (1751–1799). In 1804 another translation was published, the work of the poet Vasily Zhukovsky (1783–1852), who translated from the French version by Jean Pierre de Florian; with his poetic skill he managed to embellish what would have been a mediocre and dry version, achieving great success with the public. But it was necessary to wait until 1838, when the writer Konstantin Masalsky (1802–1861) published the first Russian translation of the Quixote made directly from Cervantes's original text; this work was completed in 1866 by V. Karelin. In 1907, under the title Ostroumno-izobretatelny idalgo Don-Kijot Lamanchesky, the new direct translation from Spanish came out, made by the writer María Watson (1853–1932).

In the Soviet era very important translations took place, the first in 1929–1932, a complete version by the philologists Grigori Lozinsky (1889–1942) and Konstantin Mochulsky (1892–1948). But the best and best-known translation of the Quixote into Russian was made in 1951 by Nikolai Lyubimov (1912–1992), for which he was awarded the USSR State Prize in 1978; it is considered the most classic and unsurpassable translation into the Russian language.^[44]

Don Quixote in Basque

José Palacio Sáenz de Vitery, a 19th-century writer from Álava, a native of Villarreal de Álava, lawyer and doctor in Philosophy and Letters, was a great Cervantist and editor of Crónica de los Cervantistas. He came to own the best collection of Quixotes of his time and undertook the translation into Basque, but he died leaving his task incomplete. The Civil War caused the manuscripts of the incomplete version to disappear in Madrid, in the family palace on the paseo del Cisne. Under the title Don Kijote Mantxa'ko, the two volumes of the first complete version in Basque of Cervantes's work were published in Zarauz (Gipuzkoa) by Editorial Itxaropena (1976, first part; 1985, second), the author of the translation being Pedro Berrondo and the promoter of the edition José Estornés Lasa.

Don Quixote in T9 (predictive text)

One of the great qualities of the text of the Quixote is that it represents, in essence, "making the impossible possible", and as part of this idea The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha has been the first work translated into predictive text, which consists of turning the words into numbers and using mobile phone messages and an application installed on the phones, T9, to turn those numbers, from 2 to 9, into the words and sentences written in his day by Miguel de Cervantes.^[45]

Don Quixote in music

Don Quixote has served as inspiration for numerous musicians since its publication. Even before the publication of the second volume of the Quixote, on February 3, 1614, the ballet Don Quichotte dansé par Mme. Sautenir was performed at the Louvre Palace.

Among the most important works based on the Knight of the Sorrowful Countenance, the following operas may be mentioned:

The Comical History of Don Quixote, by Henry Purcell (1695);
Don Chisciotte in Sierra Morena, by Francesco Bartolomeo Conti (1719);
Don Chisciotte in Venezia, intermezzo, by Giovanni Antonio Giay (1752);
Il curioso del suo proprio danno (1755–56) and Don Chisciotte (1770), by Niccolò Piccinni;
Don Chisciotte alle nozze di Gamace, by Antonio Salieri (1771);
The Sadly Famous Paladin Kosometovich, by Vicente Martín y Soler (1789);
Don Chisciotte, by Manuel García (1826);
Die Hochzeit des Camacho, by Felix Mendelssohn (1827);
Il furioso all'isola di San Domingo, by Gaetano Donizetti (1835);
Don Quixote, by Wilhelm Kienzl (1897);
La venta de Don Quijote, by Ruperto Chapí (1902)
Don Quichotte, by Jules Massenet (1910);
Don Quijote (opera by Emil Ábrányi) (1917)
El retablo de maese Pedro, by Manuel de Falla (1923);
Don Quichotte, by Cristóbal Halffter (2000)
Don Quijotes Abenteuer, by Jean Kurt Forest (still unpremiered as of 2011).

.^[46]

The Quixote also inspired various concertos, ballets, symphonic suites and chamber music. Among the most significant orchestral works are the symphonic poems, such as Don Quixote, by Richard Strauss, of 1895; Don Quixote, by Anton Rubinstein, of 1875; Una aventura de don Quijote, by Jesús Guridi, of 1916; Don Quichotte à Dulcinée, by Maurice Ravel, of 1932; or Don Quijote velando las armas, by Óscar Esplá, of 1962.

Music inspired by this work of Cervantes can also be found within rock music. The Spanish band Mägo de Oz released in 1998 an album entirely related to Don Quixote and his adventures, titled La leyenda de La Mancha, which contains songs such as "Molinos de viento", "Maritornes", "El bálsamo de Fierabrás" or "La ínsula de Barataria".^[47]

The rock band Tragicomi-K also released in 2006 "Niño siempre niño (Don Quijote en su delirio)" on its debut album Tributos de amor y saña, a song performed as a duet by its author José Riaza and the Latin Grammy-winning Mexican singer Jaramar Soto. The song narrates the misadventures of Don Quixote and shows the power of his imagination as a creator of unusual and fantastic worlds like those generated by a child's mind. "Niño siempre niño (Don Quijote en su delirio)" was also included on Tragicomi-K's compilation album Pedaceras (2010) and on the rarities album Cualquier tiempo pasado (2014)^[48] by the Madrid singer-songwriter José Riaza.

On the other hand, the American rock band They Might Be Giants bears that name because of a 1971 film of the same name, which in turn is a reference to the windmills mistaken for giants by Don Quixote.^[49]

Don Quixote in film

The first cinematic experience based on Don Quixote of La Mancha came from the French production company Gaumont in 1898. It was a brief scene titled Don Quijote, but no images have survived.
The French production company Pathé made in 1903 Les Aventures de Don Quichotte de la Manche, directed by Lucien Nonguet and Ferdinand Zecca; it is a hand-colored version that reproduces several episodes of Don Quixote of La Mancha. In Spain it was screened in 1905 during the festivities commemorating the third centenary of the publication of the first edition.
The oldest Spanish film based on Cervantes's texts is El curioso impertinente (1908), made by Narciso Cuyás, also director of the silent film version of Don Quijote (1908). Scarcely any record of them survives.
The late appearance of an organization charged with safeguarding and restoring the Spanish film heritage (until the creation in 1953 of the Filmoteca Española) allowed many silent films, including the first film versions of Cervantes's works, to disappear. Only the reviews that appeared in the press on the occasion of their premieres are known, and hardly any brief written references remain.
Ricardo Puga and Leocadia Alba, as Alonso Quijano and Maritornes, in a scene from Figuras del Quijote (1910), by Carlos Fernández Shaw, a stage adaptation of the zarzuela La venta de Don Quijote, with music by Ruperto Chapí.
One of the first appearances of the character in a cinematic work was in Don Quixote (1923), by the British director Maurice Elvey, featuring two great actors of silent film, Jerrold Robertshaw and George Robey, the latter known for his musicals on Broadway.
One of the most accomplished film adaptations is the 1933 Don Quixote, a Franco-British production directed by Georg Wilhelm Pabst, considered a film classic and performed in its main roles by Feodor Chaliapin Jr. as Don Quixote, George Robey as Sancho Panza (a character he had already played in Maurice Elvey's version ten years earlier) and Renee Valliers as Dulcinea.
In 1947 a Spanish adaptation was made, directed by Rafael Gil and starring the acting duo Rafael Rivelles and Juan Calvo. It was in its day the longest adaptation of the novel of its time (two hours and twelve minutes) and the most faithful to the literary work, reverently following its dialogues and the order of the episodes, unlike the 1933 version and the later Russian film version, in which the order of the adventures was altered, as in most film versions made.¹ ² ³ The cast included Fernando Rey as Sansón Carrasco and the popular actress Sara Montiel as Antonia, Don Quixote's niece. The soundtrack for the film was composed by Ernesto Halffter, and it was shot in various places in La Mancha and other Spanish regions.
In 1955, Orson Welles began work on an adaptation of the Quixote, a project he had to abandon on several occasions for lack of funds. Once the project was definitively abandoned and its director had died, Jesús Franco made an edit with part of the original footage and presented the film, titled Don Quijote de Orson Welles (1992), at the Cannes Film Festival. Its stars are Akim Tamiroff in the role of Sancho—he also appeared in Mr. Arkadin (1955), Touch of Evil (1958) and Chimes at Midnight (1965), by the same director—and Francisco Reiguera as Don Quixote.
In 1957, the American production company United Productions of America hired Aldous Huxley as screenwriter of a story based on the Quixote and starring the famous animated character "Mr. Magoo".
In 1957, in the Soviet Union, Grigori Kozintsev directed Don Quixote. Its original title is Don Kikhot, and its main stars are Nikolai Cherkasov—known for playing Alexander Nevsky and Ivan the Terrible in Eisenstein's films of the same names—and Yuri Tolubeyev. However, the introduction of a subliminal message about class struggle, characteristic of many Soviet films of the time, and the hardening of the Cold War due to the Bay of Pigs incident, prevented it from being released in the United States until 1961. Collaborating on this production with sketches and set designs was the sculptor, painter and set designer from Toledo Alberto Sánchez, exiled in the USSR after the Civil War.
Vicente Escrivá drew on the work of Gaston Baty and directed Dulcinea in 1962, a co-production between Spain, Italy and Germany in which Millie Perkins played Dulcinea.
In 1969, Un Quijote sin mancha premiered in Mexico, a film in which the actor Cantinflas is a lawyer who takes Don Quixote as his model. He fights against the corruption of his time, defending the humble. The film makes numerous quotations from the Quixote, among them: "Let the tears of the poor find more compassion in you, but not more justice, than the pleadings of the rich." Instead of Rocinante, he has a white goat called "Blanquita".
The film version of the musical Man of La Mancha (Man of La Mancha, 1972), directed by Arthur Hiller, featured Peter O'Toole in the role of Don Quixote/Cervantes and Sophia Loren as Dulcinea. The stage version has been performed in more than 50 languages, and one of the productions in Spanish was the one starring, in 1997, the actor José Sacristán and the singer Paloma San Basilio.
A free adaptation of the Quixote was the Spanish-Mexican co-production of the comedy Don Quijote cabalga de nuevo (1973), directed by Roberto Gavaldón, about "the truth of what happened in that place in La Mancha according to Sancho", starring Fernando Fernán Gómez in the role of Don Quixote and Mario Moreno "Cantinflas" as Sancho.
The dancers Robert Helpmann and Rudolf Nureyev co-directed and starred in the film Don Quixote (1973), a film adaptation of the ballet Don Quixote created in 1869 by the choreographer Marius Petipa and the composer Ludwig Minkus, which was shot in a hangar at Melbourne's Essendon airport and took twenty days. In July of that year, it premiered at the Sydney Opera House.
El secreto de Don Quijote is a documentary by Alberto Martínez Flechoso and Raúl Fernández Rincón, produced by Luca-filmsEspaña, de 2007, p. 180 in Madrid in 2006.^[50]
El caballero Don Quijote (2002), directed by Manuel Gutiérrez Aragón, won the City of Rome award for best Latin film at that year's Venice Film Festival. Starring Juan Luis Galiardo and Carlos Iglesias, this film can be considered the second part of El Quijote de Miguel de Cervantes, shot in 1991 for television.
China prepared in 2010 the first Asian production shot in 3D about the figure of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza. The film shows the classic adventure of the novel, but set in the China of the 17th century.
In 2018, after almost 30 years of trying to carry out the project, Terry Gilliam released The Man Who Killed Don Quixote, a film starring Jonathan Pryce in the role of Don Quixote and with Adam Driver as Sancho.

Don Quixote on television

In 1964 the Frenchmen Jacques Bourdon, Louis Grospierre and Jean Marius Richard (the latter known under the pseudonym "Carlo Rim") made the thirteen-episode black-and-white television series Don Quichotte, a co-production between Spain (Hispamer Films P. C.), France (Franco London Film) and Germany (Deropa Films). From parts of this series the same directors made a 98-minute feature film titled Dulcinea del Toboso, which was never commercially released.^[51]
In 1979 the Spanish animation studio formed by director Cruz Delgado and producer José Romagosa made the first Spanish animated cartoon series, Don Quijote de la Mancha, consisting of 39 half-hour episodes. The series was a great success and, in addition to its original Spanish dubbing (with Fernando Fernán Gómez as Don Quixote and Antonio Ferrandis as Sancho), it was dubbed into the following languages: French, German, Dutch, Italian, Greek, Turkish, Kurmanji, Portuguese, Valencian, Basque, Romanian, Polish, Hungarian, Slovene, Croatian, Farsi, Afrikaans, Hebrew, Arabic, Japanese, Mandarin Chinese, Indonesian, Tamil, Swedish, Danish, Russian, Lithuanian, Bulgarian and Icelandic.^[52] The adaptation of Cervantes's text was carried out under the literary supervision of Guillermo Díaz-Plaja, with the Cervantes scholar Manuel Criado de Val on the team. The song Quijote/Sancho, which accompanied the opening credits of each episode, was composed and written by Antonio Areta and Juan Pardo and sung by the duo Botones. This song earned the title of Gold record in 1980 (50,000 copies sold).^[53] In 1997 Romagosa International Merchandising, S. L., the series' production company, under director Cruz Delgado and producer Santiago Romagosa, re-released the series in the form of two feature films, each adapting one of the parts of the Quixote: Don Quijote I (92 min.) and Don Quijote II (94 min.). These are the first animated feature films made as adaptations of the Quixote.
In 1980 the Japanese animation studio Ashi Productions made an animated television series based on Don Quixote de la Mancha; its original title was Zukkoke Knight: Don De La Mancha and in Spanish it was titled Don Quijote y los cuentos de La Mancha. It consisted of 23 episodes, with Noa Kawaii as animation director and Kunihiko Yuyama as series director.
The theater director Maurizio Scaparro, from a script written together with Rafael Azcona, made a television version of the novel in his Don Quijote of 1983, in which the theater group Els Comediants took part.
In 1988 the Georgia Film studios of the Georgian SSR produced a nine-episode TV miniseries directed by Revaz Chkheidze and titled Life of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza.
In 1990 the production company Hanna-Barbera made an animated television series, divided into 26 thirty-minute episodes, based on the Quixote, titled Don Coyote and Sancho Panda.
At the beginning of 1992, Televisión Española premiered a five-episode adaptation covering the adventures of the first book: El Quijote de Miguel de Cervantes, directed by Manuel Gutiérrez Aragón and produced by Emiliano Piedra, with Fernando Rey and Alfredo Landa as Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, respectively.
The actors Bob Hoskins and Isabella Rossellini starred in a controversial^{[citation needed]} television adaptation of Miguel de Cervantes's work in Quixote (2000), directed by Peter Yates.
In 2016 the Televisión Española fiction series El ministerio del tiempo devoted an episode to Cervantes and the Quixote. In it, two time travelers buy the manuscript of the work before its publication, after which the protagonists of the series must get it published in order to avoid changing the history of literature in the present. In the episode, in which Cervantes is played by Pere Ponce, the play Los baños de Argel and the playwright Lope de Vega also appear.^[54]

Don Quixote in art

Don Quixote also inspired visual artists such as William Hogarth, Francisco Goya, Honoré Daumier, Gustave Doré, Vasco Prado, Pablo Picasso, Candido Portinari and DoDoU, who depicted some of the themes or characters of the plot in paintings, engravings and sculptures.^[55]

Don Quixote in comics

Cervantes's work has been the subject of several adaptations to this medium. Among the most recent, notable are the Quijote (2000) by Will Eisner and, in 2005, the year of its fourth centenary, the collective album Lanza en astillero, published by the Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha, or Mortadelo de la Mancha by Francisco Ibáñez.

Don Quixote on the Internet

In September 2010 the video portal YouTube, in collaboration with the Real Academia Española, launched a project for a collective reading of the work. Through this portal, users could upload videos in which they read an eight-line fragment supplied by the system. In total, 2,149 people carried out a continuous reading of 4,298 minutes, or almost three days. The video was finally published on March 22, 2011, with the option of choosing the chapter or fragment of the work assigned to each user.^[56]^[57]

In April 2015 the Francisco Marroquín University of Guatemala began the first massive open online course (MOOC) on Don Quixote de la Mancha. The course, in Spanish and English, free of charge and open to all audiences worldwide, is presented by the prestigious American Cervantes scholar Eric Clifford Graf. The course consists of 52 chapters of the first part and 74 of the second, uploaded in their entirety to the video server YouTube.^[58]

Notes

↑ In the editio princeps (first edition) of the novel, published in early 1605, the title that appears on the title page is EL INGENIOSO HIDALGO DON QVIXOTE DE LA MANCHA. As for orthographic matters, the letter v was the usual one at the time to represent the vowel phoneme /u/ in capital letters; as for the x, in this case it very probably represented the alveolar fricative phoneme /ʃ/ (pronounced like English sh), something it would continue to do (alongside the letters j and i), in both capital and lowercase letters, until the 18th century. As for the original title, it has been postulated that it was El ingenioso hidalgo de la Mancha, as it appears in the "tasa" (official price assessment) and the "royal privilege" in the preliminaries of the first part of 1605, although it has not been possible to determine whether this wording reflects Cervantes's intention or an oversight in processing the publication of the novel, whether it is an abbreviation of El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha, or whether it stems from an administrative error. Cf. note 2 to the tasa in F. Rico's edition published by the CVC.
↑ Original title: Segunda parte del ingenioso cavallero Don Qvixote de la Mancha.

References

↑ Pérez de Antón, Francisco (full member of the Guatemalan Academy of the Language, corresponding member of the Real Academia Española) (December 2004). "La lección moral de Cervantes" (PDF) (in español). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 13, 2017. Retrieved December 10, 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ "Primera parte del ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha". IES Adaja (in español). Archived from the original on December 22, 2015. Retrieved January 26, 2016.
↑ (in English) "The top 100 books of all time." The Guardian. Retrieved January 14, 2013.
↑ ^4.0 ^4.1 Rico 1998, p. cxcv.
↑ Rico 1998, p. cxcii.
↑ Rico 1998, p. cxciii.
↑ Rico 1998, pp. cxcii–cxciii.
↑ Rico 1998, p. cxciv.
↑ Rico 1998, p. cxcvi.
↑ Stagg 1959, pp. 347–366.
↑ Casasayas 1995.
↑ Stagg 2002, pp. 129–150.
↑ See, for example, Graf (2007), chapter 2, or his essay "How to read Don Quixote as a great book about the soul and politics".
↑ Ortés, Federico. "Don Quijote Liberado" (in español). Archived from the original on August 12, 2015. {{cite web}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; August 1, 2015 suggested (help)
↑ Probable source of inspiration for Cervantes for this ingenious literary device (on Wikisource).
↑ Calvo López, Mariano (1992). «El Alcaná (génesis de El Quijote). Ruta de Cervantes», en Rutas literarias de Toledo (in español). Toledo: Cuarto Centenario, pp. 110. ISBN 978-84-940811-2-5.. Miguel de Cervantes, as narrator, says he found the manuscript of Cide Hamete Benengeli in which the story of Don Quixote is related: "Being one day in the Alcaná of Toledo, a boy came to sell some folders and old papers to a silk merchant; […] I took one of the folders the boy was selling, and saw that it was in characters which I recognized to be Arabic. [….] I went looking to see whether some Spanish-speaking Morisco might be about who could read them; and it was not very difficult to find such an interpreter." The Alcaná (from "aljanat" = shop) was the commercial quarter of Toledo, extending through the area of the Cuatro Calles, Hombre de Palo and present-day Cordonerías, where Morisco merchants abounded. All kinds of products were sold there, among them silk (of which Toledo was a great producer), so it is not surprising that the boy mentioned by Cervantes should seek to sell the old papers to a silk merchant, probably to be used as wrapping. The abundance of Moriscos in the Toledan Alcaná makes it easy to meet a Spanish-speaking Morisco translator, with whom the narrator arranges the translation of the History of Don Quixote of La Mancha, written by the Arab historian Cide Hamete Benengeli in the cloister of Toledo Cathedral, a gathering place for the educated population of the city, because "those who are raised in the Tenerías and in Zocodover cannot speak as well as those who stroll all day through the cloister of the Iglesia Mayor."
↑ The problem of the unsatisfactory nature of this ending of the novel, because of the vagueness and apparent insignificance of those episodes (such as the story of Leandra and the attack on the procession of the Virgin), is addressed in Alan Hoyle, "Don Quixote of La Mancha"(1605): Highlights and Lowlights, Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas, 2017. ISBN 9788478828254. That study, by highlighting Aristotelian analogy as the driving force of the narrative, sheds light on the religious and political context that gives more meaning and consistency to the denouement.
↑ González Canales, Maria Luz. "Alba de Tormes, Cervantes y Santa Teresa" (in español). Retrieved December 19, 2021.
↑ Cervantes, Miguel (2015). Don Quijote de La Mancha. Edición conmemorativa de la RAE. IV Centenario Cervantes (in español). Santillana Ediciones Generales. p. 547. ISBN 84-204-6728-6.
↑ Monforte Dupret 2007, p. 178.
↑ Imperiale, Luigi (1994). "Marcela como construcción ideológica de Grisóstomo: la dura realidad de la ficción". Revista de Filología de la Universidad de La Laguna (in español) (13): 161–178. ISSN 0212-4130.
↑ For the analysis of the pastoral episodes and their significance in the perspectivism of the Quixote, see García Carcedo (1995)
↑ Luna et al. 2005.
↑ Girón & Ríos 2006, pp. 23–29.
↑ «El Quijote de la Mancha en la Academia Colombiana.»
↑ Carrillo, Pedro (2015). Literatura, siempre (in español). Universidad de Cantabria. p. 57. ISBN 978-84-8102-751-8.
↑ Manguel, Alberto (2014). "Lectura prohibida". Una historia de la lectura (PDF) (in español). In PDF. Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI. ISBN 978-987-629-371-6.
↑ Oltra, Joaquim (July 2005). "Los fundadores de EE.UU. leían 'El Quijote'". Clío (in español). Año 4 (45). Barcelona: 14. ISSN 1579-3532.
↑ Arturo Serrano Plaja, Magic Realism in Cervantes. "Don Quixote" seen through "Tom Sawyer" and "The Idiot". Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1970.
↑ William Childers, “Quixotic Gumbo”, Cervantes: Bulletin of the Cervantes Society of America 35.1 (2015): 17-48
↑ Frederick A. de Armas, “Rocinante in Flight, Dulcinea Infected: Quixotic Moves in James S. A. Corey’s Leviathan Wakes”, Cervantes: Bulletin of the Cervantes Society of America 40.2 (2020) 141-58.
↑ Schopenhauer, Arthur. "The Art of Literature". The Essays of Arthur Schopenahuer. Retrieved March 22, 2015.
↑ Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quijote de la Mancha, Círculo de Lectores, Barcelona, 1987, 31.7x20.5 cm, 2 vols. of 392 pp. each. Illustrations and final note by Antonio Saura, preface by Martín de Riquer. Selection of thirteen images from the illustrated edition at www.antoniosaura.org (official website of the Sucession Saura foundation). Archived July 28, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
↑ "En un llugar de La Mancha". La Nueva España (in español). July 1, 2014. Retrieved July 3, 2014.
↑ "Primera traducción completa del Quijote al asturiano en el Museo Cervantino de El Toboso". encastillalamancha.es (in español). July 1, 2014. Retrieved July 3, 2014.
↑ ""Esta traducción del Quixote al asturianu lleva al llector pelos caminos del disfrute", asegura Bello". Asturies.com (in asturianu). April 22, 2015. Retrieved July 2, 2025.
↑ "Un Quijote histórico para Asturias". El Comercio (in español). April 22, 2015. Retrieved July 2, 2025.
↑ Rojo, Miguel (May 8, 2014). "El Quijote políglota: hablará asturiano". El Comercio (in español). Retrieved July 3, 2014.
↑ "El Caballeru de la Murnia Figura". VTP Editorial (in asturianu). Retrieved February 8, 2016. Bibliographic reference on the publisher's page.
↑ "Lin Shu, Autor Del Quijote" de Mikaël Gómez Guthart" (in español). September 1, 2017. Retrieved September 14, 2017.
↑ "Don Quijote en croata" (in español). Cervantes.es. Retrieved April 25, 2010.
↑ «Las obras maestras como el Quijote son capaces de emocionar antes de ser comprendidas.»
↑ Alexander Prieto Osorno (August 29, 2007). "El Quijote habla quechua". CVC. Centro Virtual Cervantes. (in español). Retrieved September 10, 2017.
↑ Difusión de Don Quijote en Rusia.
↑ News of the T9 translation of the Quijote in Granada Hoy.
↑ Nommick, Yvan. "El Quijote en la ópera". Centro Virtual Cervantes (in español). Retrieved December 13, 2012.
↑ Booklet of the album La Leyenda de la Mancha, Mägo de Oz, Locomotive Music, 1998.
↑ "JOSE RIAZA PRESENTA NUEVO DISCO – TXart". www.txart.me (in español). Retrieved June 4, 2019.
↑ "They Might Be Giants hometown, lineup, biography". Last.fm. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
↑ Guadalupe, Diego (September 14, 2006). "Shhhh, no vayan a contarlo, pero en El Quijote hay un mensaje secreto". Clarín (in español). Retrieved December 19, 2015.
↑ Dulcinea del Toboso en Cervantesvirtual.com
↑ Sección «Descripción técnica e historia» at www.quijote.tv, official website of the animated series Don Quijote de la Mancha (1979).
↑ Folleto con los créditos de Don Quijote de la Mancha at www.quijote.tv, official website of the series.
↑ "'El Ministerio del Tiempo' salvará 'El Quijote' de Cervantes". RTVE.es (in español). February 26, 2016. Retrieved April 11, 2016.
↑ "Don Quixote, 1955 by Pablo Picasso". www.pablopicasso.org. Retrieved 2024. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
↑ "Preparan en YouTube la lectura del Quijote más grande de la historia". Clarín (in español). October 1, 2010. Retrieved October 3, 2010.
↑ "Canal del Quijote" (in español). YouTube. Retrieved October 3, 2010.
↑ "Descubre a don Quijote de la Mancha". Universidad Francisco Marroquín (in español). April 15, 2010. Retrieved September 10, 2015.

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— (2005a). Cervantes and the Hermeneutics of Satire. Kassel: Edition Reichenberger. ISBN 3-937734-11-2.
— (2005b). ¿Cervantes, un gran satírico? Los enigmas del Quijote descifrados para el carísimo lector (in español). Kassel: Edición Reichenberger. ISBN 3-937734-12-0.
Rico, Francisco (1998). "Historia del texto". In Rico, Francisco (ed.). Don Quijote de la Mancha (in español). Barcelona: Instituto Cervantes/Crítica. ISBN 84-7423-896-X.
Riley, Edward C. (2004) [1990]. Introducción al «Quijote» (in español). Barcelona: Crítica. ISBN 84-8432-027-8.
Riquer Morera, Martín de (1993) [1967]. Aproximación al «Quijote» (in español). Barcelona: Teide. ISBN 84-307-7055-0.
— (2003). Para leer a Cervantes (in español). Madrid: Acantilado. ISBN 84-96136-20-5.
Rosales, Luis (1996) [1960]. Cervantes y la libertad (in español). Madrid: Trotta. ISBN 84-8164-131-6.
Salazar Rincón, Javier (1986). El mundo social del Quijote (in español). Madrid: Gredos. ISBN 84-249-1060-5.
— (2006). El escritor y su entorno. Cervantes y la corte de Valladolid en 1605 (in español). Valladolid: Junta de Castilla y León. ISBN 84-9718-375-4.
Selig, Karl-Ludwig (1993). Studies on Cervantes. Kassel: Edition Reichenberger. ISBN 9783928064644.
Sliwa, Krzysztof (2000). Documentos cervantinos. Nueva recopilación; lista e índices (in español). New York: Peter Lang.
— (2005). Vida de Miguel Cervantes Saavedra (in español). Kassel: Edition Reichenberger. ISBN 3-937734-13-9.
Stagg, Geoffrey (1959). Pierce, F. (ed.). "Revision in Don Quixote, Part I". Hispanic Studies in Honour of Ignacio González Llubera. Oxford: Dolphin: 347–366.
— (2002). "Don Quijote and the "Entremés de los romances": A Retrospective" (PDF). Cervantes: Bulletin of the Cervantes Society of America. 22 (2): 129–150. Retrieved February 5, 2015.
Torrente Ballester, Gonzalo (2004) [1975]. El Quijote como juego y otros trabajos críticos (in español). Barcelona: Destino. ISBN 84-233-3598-4.
Unamuno, Miguel de (2005) [1905]. Vida de don Quijote y Sancho, según Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, explicada y comentada (in español). Madrid: Alianza Editorial. ISBN 84-206-3614-2.

External links

El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de La Mancha at the National Library of Spain
Documentary record at the National Library of Spain
Record of the first edition of the Quixote in the Biblioteca Digital Hispánica of the National Library of Spain
Don Quijote de la Mancha. Edition directed by Francisco Rico at the Centro Virtual Cervantes
Web portal of the Miguel de Cervantes Virtual Library
Col·lecció Cervantina at the Library of Catalonia
Cine y educación: «Don Quijote en el cine», University of Huelva
Illustrations from various editions of Don Quixote de la Mancha from the 16th century to the present. Cervantes Collection, belonging to the Cushing Memorial Library of Texas A&M University
Museo Casa Natal de Cervantes (Alcalá de Henares, Madrid)
Massive online course of the Francisco Marroquín University "Descubre Don Quijote de la Mancha"

[1] In the editio princeps (first edition) of the novel, published in early 1605, the title that appears on the title page is EL INGENIOSO HIDALGO DON QVIXOTE DE LA MANCHA. As for orthographic matters, the letter v was the usual one at the time to represent the vowel phoneme /u/ in capital letters; as for the x, in this case it very probably represented the alveolar fricative phoneme /ʃ/ (pronounced like English sh), something it would continue to do (alongside the letters j and i), in both capital and lowercase letters, until the 18th century. As for the original title, it has been postulated that it was El ingenioso hidalgo de la Mancha, as it appears in the "tasa" (official price assessment) and the "royal privilege" in the preliminaries of the first part of 1605, although it has not been possible to determine whether this wording reflects Cervantes's intention or an oversight in processing the publication of the novel, whether it is an abbreviation of El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha, or whether it stems from an administrative error. Cf. note 2 to the tasa in F. Rico's edition published by the CVC.

[6] Original title: Segunda parte del ingenioso cavallero Don Qvixote de la Mancha.

[2] Pérez de Antón, Francisco (full member of the Guatemalan Academy of the Language, corresponding member of the Real Academia Española) (December 2004). "La lección moral de Cervantes" (PDF) (in español). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 13, 2017. Retrieved December 10, 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[3] "Primera parte del ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha". IES Adaja (in español). Archived from the original on December 22, 2015. Retrieved January 26, 2016.

[4] (in English) "The top 100 books of all time." The Guardian. Retrieved January 14, 2013.

[FOOTNOTERico1998cxcv-5] 4.0 ^4.1 Rico 1998, p. cxcv.

[FOOTNOTERico1998cxcii-7] Rico 1998, p. cxcii.

[FOOTNOTERico1998cxciii-8] Rico 1998, p. cxciii.

[FOOTNOTERico1998cxcii–cxciii-9] Rico 1998, pp. cxcii–cxciii.

[FOOTNOTERico1998cxciv-10] Rico 1998, p. cxciv.

[FOOTNOTERico1998cxcvi-11] Rico 1998, p. cxcvi.

[FOOTNOTEStagg1959347–366-12] Stagg 1959, pp. 347–366.

[FOOTNOTECasasayas1995-13] Casasayas 1995.

[FOOTNOTEStagg2002129–150-14] Stagg 2002, pp. 129–150.

[15] See, for example, Graf (2007), chapter 2, or his essay "How to read Don Quixote as a great book about the soul and politics".

[16] Ortés, Federico. "Don Quijote Liberado" (in español). Archived from the original on August 12, 2015. {{cite web}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; August 1, 2015 suggested (help)

[17] Probable source of inspiration for Cervantes for this ingenious literary device (on Wikisource).

[18] Calvo López, Mariano (1992). «El Alcaná (génesis de El Quijote). Ruta de Cervantes», en Rutas literarias de Toledo (in español). Toledo: Cuarto Centenario, pp. 110. ISBN 978-84-940811-2-5.. Miguel de Cervantes, as narrator, says he found the manuscript of Cide Hamete Benengeli in which the story of Don Quixote is related: "Being one day in the Alcaná of Toledo, a boy came to sell some folders and old papers to a silk merchant; […] I took one of the folders the boy was selling, and saw that it was in characters which I recognized to be Arabic. [….] I went looking to see whether some Spanish-speaking Morisco might be about who could read them; and it was not very difficult to find such an interpreter." The Alcaná (from "aljanat" = shop) was the commercial quarter of Toledo, extending through the area of the Cuatro Calles, Hombre de Palo and present-day Cordonerías, where Morisco merchants abounded. All kinds of products were sold there, among them silk (of which Toledo was a great producer), so it is not surprising that the boy mentioned by Cervantes should seek to sell the old papers to a silk merchant, probably to be used as wrapping. The abundance of Moriscos in the Toledan Alcaná makes it easy to meet a Spanish-speaking Morisco translator, with whom the narrator arranges the translation of the History of Don Quixote of La Mancha, written by the Arab historian Cide Hamete Benengeli in the cloister of Toledo Cathedral, a gathering place for the educated population of the city, because "those who are raised in the Tenerías and in Zocodover cannot speak as well as those who stroll all day through the cloister of the Iglesia Mayor."

[19] The problem of the unsatisfactory nature of this ending of the novel, because of the vagueness and apparent insignificance of those episodes (such as the story of Leandra and the attack on the procession of the Virgin), is addressed in Alan Hoyle, "Don Quixote of La Mancha"(1605): Highlights and Lowlights, Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas, 2017. ISBN 9788478828254. That study, by highlighting Aristotelian analogy as the driving force of the narrative, sheds light on the religious and political context that gives more meaning and consistency to the denouement.

[20] González Canales, Maria Luz. "Alba de Tormes, Cervantes y Santa Teresa" (in español). Retrieved December 19, 2021.

[21] Cervantes, Miguel (2015). Don Quijote de La Mancha. Edición conmemorativa de la RAE. IV Centenario Cervantes (in español). Santillana Ediciones Generales. p. 547. ISBN 84-204-6728-6.

[FOOTNOTEMonforte_Dupret2007178-22] Monforte Dupret 2007, p. 178.

[23] Imperiale, Luigi (1994). "Marcela como construcción ideológica de Grisóstomo: la dura realidad de la ficción". Revista de Filología de la Universidad de La Laguna (in español) (13): 161–178. ISSN 0212-4130.

[24] For the analysis of the pastoral episodes and their significance in the perspectivism of the Quixote, see García Carcedo (1995)

[FOOTNOTELunaNietoVerdaguerBravo2005-25] Luna et al. 2005.

[FOOTNOTEGirónRíos200623–29-26] Girón & Ríos 2006, pp. 23–29.

[27] «El Quijote de la Mancha en la Academia Colombiana.»

[28] Carrillo, Pedro (2015). Literatura, siempre (in español). Universidad de Cantabria. p. 57. ISBN 978-84-8102-751-8.

[29] Manguel, Alberto (2014). "Lectura prohibida". Una historia de la lectura (PDF) (in español). In PDF. Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI. ISBN 978-987-629-371-6.

[30] Oltra, Joaquim (July 2005). "Los fundadores de EE.UU. leían 'El Quijote'". Clío (in español). Año 4 (45). Barcelona: 14. ISSN 1579-3532.

[31] Arturo Serrano Plaja, Magic Realism in Cervantes. "Don Quixote" seen through "Tom Sawyer" and "The Idiot". Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1970.

[32] William Childers, “Quixotic Gumbo”, Cervantes: Bulletin of the Cervantes Society of America 35.1 (2015): 17-48

[33] Frederick A. de Armas, “Rocinante in Flight, Dulcinea Infected: Quixotic Moves in James S. A. Corey’s Leviathan Wakes”, Cervantes: Bulletin of the Cervantes Society of America 40.2 (2020) 141-58.

[schopenhauer_art-34] Schopenhauer, Arthur. "The Art of Literature". The Essays of Arthur Schopenahuer. Retrieved March 22, 2015.

[35] Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quijote de la Mancha, Círculo de Lectores, Barcelona, 1987, 31.7x20.5 cm, 2 vols. of 392 pp. each. Illustrations and final note by Antonio Saura, preface by Martín de Riquer. Selection of thirteen images from the illustrated edition at www.antoniosaura.org (official website of the Sucession Saura foundation). Archived July 28, 2011, at the Wayback Machine

[36] "En un llugar de La Mancha". La Nueva España (in español). July 1, 2014. Retrieved July 3, 2014.

[37] "Primera traducción completa del Quijote al asturiano en el Museo Cervantino de El Toboso". encastillalamancha.es (in español). July 1, 2014. Retrieved July 3, 2014.

[38] ""Esta traducción del Quixote al asturianu lleva al llector pelos caminos del disfrute", asegura Bello". Asturies.com (in asturianu). April 22, 2015. Retrieved July 2, 2025.

[39] "Un Quijote histórico para Asturias". El Comercio (in español). April 22, 2015. Retrieved July 2, 2025.

[40] Rojo, Miguel (May 8, 2014). "El Quijote políglota: hablará asturiano". El Comercio (in español). Retrieved July 3, 2014.

[41] "El Caballeru de la Murnia Figura". VTP Editorial (in asturianu). Retrieved February 8, 2016. Bibliographic reference on the publisher's page.

[42] "Lin Shu, Autor Del Quijote" de Mikaël Gómez Guthart" (in español). September 1, 2017. Retrieved September 14, 2017.

[43] "Don Quijote en croata" (in español). Cervantes.es. Retrieved April 25, 2010.

[44] «Las obras maestras como el Quijote son capaces de emocionar antes de ser comprendidas.»

[45] Alexander Prieto Osorno (August 29, 2007). "El Quijote habla quechua". CVC. Centro Virtual Cervantes. (in español). Retrieved September 10, 2017.

[46] Difusión de Don Quijote en Rusia.

[47] News of the T9 translation of the Quijote in Granada Hoy.

[48] Nommick, Yvan. "El Quijote en la ópera". Centro Virtual Cervantes (in español). Retrieved December 13, 2012.

[49] Booklet of the album La Leyenda de la Mancha, Mägo de Oz, Locomotive Music, 1998.

[50] "JOSE RIAZA PRESENTA NUEVO DISCO – TXart". www.txart.me (in español). Retrieved June 4, 2019.

[51] "They Might Be Giants hometown, lineup, biography". Last.fm. Retrieved 2024-02-20.

[52] Guadalupe, Diego (September 14, 2006). "Shhhh, no vayan a contarlo, pero en El Quijote hay un mensaje secreto". Clarín (in español). Retrieved December 19, 2015.

[53] Dulcinea del Toboso en Cervantesvirtual.com

[54] Sección «Descripción técnica e historia» at www.quijote.tv, official website of the animated series Don Quijote de la Mancha (1979).

[55] Folleto con los créditos de Don Quijote de la Mancha at www.quijote.tv, official website of the series.

[56] "'El Ministerio del Tiempo' salvará 'El Quijote' de Cervantes". RTVE.es (in español). February 26, 2016. Retrieved April 11, 2016.

[57] "Don Quixote, 1955 by Pablo Picasso". www.pablopicasso.org. Retrieved 2024. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= (help)

[58] "Preparan en YouTube la lectura del Quijote más grande de la historia". Clarín (in español). October 1, 2010. Retrieved October 3, 2010.

[59] "Canal del Quijote" (in español). YouTube. Retrieved October 3, 2010.

[60] "Descubre a don Quijote de la Mancha". Universidad Francisco Marroquín (in español). April 15, 2010. Retrieved September 10, 2015.

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Don Quixote
Title page of 1605
Original title	El ingenioso hidalgo don Quixote de la Mancha (1605) Segunda parte del ingenioso caballero don Quixote de la Mancha (1615)
Author	Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra
Country	Spain
Language	Middle Spanish
Genre	Adventure novel, parody of the novels of chivalry, realist novel
Publisher	Juan de la Cuesta at the expense of Francisco de Robles
Publication date	1605, 1615

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