Education in the Philippines during Spanish rule

Library of the University of Santo Tomás in Manila, 1887. Created at the request of Archbishop Miguel de Benavides, O.P. of Manila in 1610, it is the oldest existing university in Asia. The library is also the oldest on the continent. It even had its own printing press, which was brought from Europe.

During the Spanish administration of the Philippines (1521–1898), the different cultures of the archipelago underwent a gradual unification from a variety of local customs and traditions, including religious practices (mainly animist), until they evolved into what is known today as Filipino culture, a unique hybrid of Western culture in Southeast Asia, with contributions from Hispanic culture, including the Spanish language and the Catholic faith.

The Spanish system of education played a very important role in that transformation. The oldest universities, colleges and vocational schools, dating from the late 16th century, were created during the Spanish administration, as was the first modern system of public education in Asia, established in 1863. When the United States invaded the archipelago, Filipinos had one of the highest literacy rates in the entire region, and they were not only among the most educated peoples in all of Asia, but stood above the average of the invaders themselves.

Early period

During the first years of Spanish colonization, education was mainly in the hands of the Church. Spanish friars and missionaries educated the natives and converted the indigenous populations to the Catholic faith.

The Laws of the Indies of King Philip II ordered the Spanish authorities in the Philippines to educate the natives in order to teach them to read and write in Spanish. However, this latter goal was difficult given the realities of the time. As was customary in other parts of the world, the first friars learned the local languages in order to communicate better with the local people. In order to teach the Spanish language to the native population, the friars first learned the local languages, which also made it possible to teach the Christian faith. They also created grammars of native languages as part of their evangelizing and administrative efforts. These grammars, known as artes or missionary grammars, were drawn up mainly for languages such as Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano and Kapampangan, among others. Notable examples were the "Arte de la lengua tagala" (1610) by Fray Francisco de San José, the "Vocabulario de la lengua tagala" (1613) by Fray Pedro de San Buenaventura, the "Arte de la lengua bisaya" (1663) by Fray Alonso de Méntrida, the "Arte de la lengua ilocana" (1627) by Fray Francisco López, and the "Arte de la lengua pampanga" (1729) by Fray Diego Bergaño.

The Spanish missionaries established schools shortly after arriving in the islands, and a few decades into the Spanish period there was no Christian village without its school, which most of the children attended. The Augustinians opened a school immediately after arriving in Cebu in 1565. The Franciscans, who arrived in 1577, also immediately devoted themselves to the task of teaching the population to read and write, in addition to teaching them important industrial and agricultural techniques. The Jesuits, who arrived in 1581, also concentrated on teaching the young. When the Dominican Order arrived in 1587, they did the same in their first mission in Bataan.

Within a few months of their arrival in Tigbauan, in the province of Iloilo, located on the island of Panay, Pedro Chirino and Francisco Martín had established a school for Visayan youths in 1593, in which they taught not only the catechism but also reading, writing, the Spanish language and liturgical music. The Spaniards of Arévalo heard about the school and wanted Chirino to teach their children as well. Chirino immediately built a dormitory and a school (1593–1594) for the Spanish children near his rectory. It was the first Jesuit boarding school established in the Philippines.

Title page of the Doctrina Christiana

The Chinese version of the Doctrina Christiana was the first book printed in the Philippines, around 1590. A version in Spanish and in Tagalog, in both the Latin script and the Baybayin script commonly used by the Tagalogs of Manila at the time, was printed in 1593. Eventually, the Baybayin script was replaced by the Latin script, as the latter became increasingly useful and widespread.

In 1610, Tomas Pinpin, a Filipino printer, writer and publisher, sometimes referred to as the "Patriarch of Filipino printing," wrote his famous Librong Pagaaralan nang manga Tagalog nang Uicang Castilla, which was intended to help Filipinos learn the Spanish language. The prologue read:

Let us study, then, my countrymen, for although the art of learning is somewhat difficult, if we are persevering, we will soon improve our knowledge.

Other Tagalogs like us took less than a year to learn the Spanish language using my book. This good result has given me satisfaction and encouraged me to print my work, so that everyone may derive some benefit from it.

There were also Latin schools where that language was taught along with some Spanish, since it was a mandatory requirement for the study of philosophy, theology and jurisprudence in schools such as the University of Santo Tomás, run by the Dominicans. The Filipino priests and lawyers of that time, with the exception of the sons and daughters of Spaniards, Principalías and ladinos, knew Latin perfectly because the educational system was entirely religious and required it.

The friars also opened many medical and pharmaceutical schools. The study of pharmacy consisted of a preparatory course with subjects in natural history and general chemistry, and five years of studies in subjects such as pharmaceutical operations at the school of pharmacy. At the end of this period, the title of Bachelor of Pharmacy was awarded.

By the end of the 16th century, several religious orders had established charity hospitals throughout the archipelago and provided most of this public service. These hospitals also became the setting for rudimentary scientific research work in pharmacy and medicine, focused mainly on the problems of infectious diseases. Several Spanish missionaries cataloged hundreds of Philippine plants with medicinal properties. The Manual de Medicinas Caseras..., written by Father Fernando de Santa María and first published in 1763, came to be so sought after that it was reprinted in several editions in 1885.

The Royal College of Santa Potenciana was the first school for girls opened in the Philippines, in 1589. It was followed by another school for women, the Colegio de Santa Isabel, which opened in 1632. Other schools and colleges for girls were Santa Catalina, Santa Rosa, La Concordia and many others. Several religious congregations also established schools for orphaned girls who could not obtain an education on their own.

Tertiary schools

Fountain of Wisdom at the University of Santo Tomás

In 1590, the University of San Ignacio was founded in Manila by the Jesuits, initially as the Colegio-Seminario de San Ignacio. By the second half of the 17th century, the university had been incorporated as a mere Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy into the University of Santo Tomás.

The Colegio de San Ildefonso was established in 1595 in Cebu by the Society of Jesus. The school closed in 1768, but the present-day University of San Carlos claims to have its roots in the possibly defunct 16th-century school. This claim has been the subject of numerous debates.

On April 28, 1611, the University of Santo Tomás was founded in Manila, initially named the Colegio de Nuestra Señora del Santísimo Rosario and later renamed the Colegio de Santo Tomás. On November 20, 1645, Pope Innocent X raised it to a University. King Charles III of Spain granted it the title of "Royal" in 1785, and Pope Leo XIII that of "Pontifical" in 1902. Pope Pius XII designated it The Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomás de Aquino, Catholic University of the Philippines (Catholic University of the Philippines) in 1947.

In 1640, the University of San Felipe de Austria was established in Manila. It was the first public university created by the Spanish government in the Philippines. It closed in 1643.

The Jesuits also founded the Colegio de San José (1601) and took charge of the direction of a school that became the Escuela Municipal (1859, later renamed the Ateneo Municipal de Manila in 1865, now the Ateneo de Manila University). The Dominicans, for their part, had the Colegio de San Juan de Letrán (1620) in Manila. All of them offered courses leading to various prestigious careers, such as the Bachelor of Arts, which by the 19th century included scientific subjects such as physics, chemistry, natural history and mathematics. The University of Santo Tomás, for example, began by teaching theology, philosophy and the humanities. During the 18th century the Faculty of Jurisprudence and Canon Law was created.

In 1871 several schools of medicine and pharmacy were opened. From 1871 to 1883, Santo Tomás alone had 829 enrollments of medical students, and from 1883 to 1898, 7,965 medical students. By the end of Spanish colonial rule in 1898, the university had awarded the title of Licentiate in Medicine (Licenciado en Medicina) to 359 graduates and 108 physicians. For the degree of doctor of medicine, its program was modeled on the same set of examinations as those of the universities of the metropole, and at least one additional year of studies at the Central University of Madrid in Spain was required.

Dispute over the oldest university in the Philippines

Main article: Dispute over the oldest school in the Philippines

The Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomás, established by Dominican missionaries in 1611 and raised to the rank of University in 1645 by Pope Innocent X at the request of Philip IV of Spain, is currently the educational institution with the oldest existing university charter in Asia.

The title of oldest university in the Philippines has been the subject of debate between two educational institutions: the University of Santo Tomás and the University of San Carlos.

The University of Santo Tomás, established in 1611 as the Colegio de Nuestra Señora del Santísimo Rosario, is generally recognized as the oldest university in the Philippines. In 1935, the government of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, through the Committee of Markers and Historical Research, declared UST to be "the oldest university under the American flag". In the 1990s, the Intramuros Administration installed a marker on the original site of the University of Santo Tomás recognizing the university as the "oldest university in Asia". In 2011, Pope Benedict XVI recognized UST as "the oldest Catholic institution of higher education in the Far East", while in 2012 the National Historical Commission of the Philippines published an online article recognizing UST as "the oldest University in Asia".

However, the University of San Carlos has opposed this recognition and claims to be older than the University of Santo Tomás by 16 years, tracing its roots to the Colegio de San Ildefonso (established in 1595). In 1995, the University of San Carlos celebrated its Quadricentennial (400th Anniversary).

Numerous scholars and official government bodies have reviewed the case. In 2010, the National Historical Commission of the Philippines installed a bronze marker stating that USC was founded in the late 18th century, which effectively refuted any direct connection with the Colegio de San Ildefonso. According to Dr. Víctor Torres of De La Salle University, the University of San Carlos's claim dates only from 1948, when USC was declared a university. Fidel Villarroel of the University of Santo Tomás argued that USC merely took over the facilities of the former Colegio de San Ildefonso and that there is no 'visible' and 'clear' link between San Carlos and San Ildefonso. In an article by Aloysius Cebuano published in Cartagena by Philippiniana Sacra, he stated that the correct founding year of USC is 1867, not 1595, while in 2012 the National Historical Commission of the Philippines consolidated its earlier position when it published an online article recognizing UST as "the oldest university in Asia".

Secondary schools

Entrance to the Pharmacy and Medicine classrooms of the Colegio de San José

On January 1, 1820, a Nautical School was created, offering a four-year course of study (for the profession of merchant marine pilot) that included subjects such as arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, physics, hydrography, meteorology, navigation and piloting. In 1839 a School of Commercial Accounting and a School of French and English Languages were established.

The Don Honorio Ventura College of Arts and Trades in Bacolor, Pampanga, is said to be the oldest official vocational school in Asia. The vocational school began when an Augustinian friar, Father Juan P. Zita, dreamed of helping the young people of Bacolor, and with the help of the equally benevolent civic leader Don Felino Gil, the school was officially founded on November 4, 1861, after the approval of its statutes by Governor-General Lemery, as the Escuela de Artes y Oficios de Bacolor, built on land donated by the Suárez sisters of Bacolor. Other important vocational schools established were the School of Accountancy, the Academy of Painting and Drawing, and the seminaries of Manila, Nueva Segovia, Cebu, Jaro and Nueva Cáceres.

The School of Agriculture of Manila was created in 1887, although it was not able to open its doors until July 1889. Its mission was to provide theoretical and practical education, by agricultural engineers, to qualified farmers and foremen, and to promote agricultural development through observation, experimentation and research. It included subjects such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, natural history, agriculture, topography, and linear and topographic drawing. Agricultural schools and monitoring stations, run by professors who were agronomist engineers, were also established in Isabela, Ilocos, Albay, Cebu, Iloilo, Leyte and parts of Mindanao.

The Royal Economic Society of Friends of the Country (Philippines) was first introduced in the islands in 1780, and offered local and foreign scholarships to Filipinos, professorships, and funded trips of scientists from Spain to the Philippines. Throughout the 19th century, the society established an academy of design, funded the publication of scientific and technical literature, and awarded prizes for successful experiments and inventions that improved agriculture and industry.

The Meteorological Observatory of the Ateneo Municipal de Manila (Manila Observatory) was founded in 1865 by the Jesuits after an article they published in the newspaper Diario de Manila, describing observations of typhoons made in September 1865, attracted the attention of many readers, who publicly requested that the observations be continued. The Spanish government made the observatory the official institution for weather forecasting in the Philippines in 1884, and in 1885 it began its service. Its seismology section was created in 1887, while astronomical studies began in 1899. The Observatory published observations and studies of typhoons and climatological studies, including the first typhoon warnings, a service that was greatly appreciated by the business community, especially that engaged in merchant shipping.

Modern system of public education

The present-day National Museum building in Boac stands on the site of the Escuela de Niños of Marinduque, one of the oldest public primary schools on the island from the era of the Spanish administration.

To the left of the Alburquerque Church in Bohol stand the original twin buildings of the Escuela de Niños, built in the 1880s under the supervision of the parish priests.

Gen. Gregorio del Pilar Elementary School began as the Escuela de Niños y Niñas of Tondo, established by the Cebuano entrepreneur Don Guillermo Osmeña in 1865. The school was dedicated to the sons and daughters of indios who could not afford the private schools in the vicinity of Tondo.

The modern public school was introduced in Spain in 1857. This did not exist in any other colony of any other European power in Asia. The concept of universal education was relatively new, driven by the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century.

In the Philippines, free access to modern public education was made possible by the promulgation of the Spanish Education Decree of December 20, 1863, by Queen Isabella II of Spain. Primary instruction was made free and the teaching of Spanish was compulsory. This was ten years before Japan had a compulsory form of free modern public education, and forty years before the American government began an English-based public school system in the Philippines. The royal decree provided for a complete educational system consisting of primary, secondary and tertiary levels, which resulted in valuable training for all Filipino children and young people.

The Education Decree of 1863 provided for the establishment of at least two free primary schools in each town, one for boys and one for girls, under the responsibility of the municipal government. It also promoted the creation of a free public normal school to train men as teachers, supervised by the Jesuits. One of these schools was the Escuela Normal Elemental, which in 1896 became the Escuela Normal Superior de Maestros de Manila (The Normal School) for male teachers. The Spanish government also established a school for midwives in 1879 and a Normal School for women teachers in 1892, the Escuela Normal Superior de Maestras. In the 1890s, free public secondary schools were opened outside Manila, including 10 normal schools for women.

The range of subjects taught was very advanced, as can be seen in the Education Program of the Ateneo Municipal de Manila, which included Algebra, Agriculture, Arithmetic, Chemistry, Commerce, English, French, Geography, Geometry, Greek, History, Latin, Mechanics, Natural History, Painting, Philosophy, Physics, Rhetoric and Poetry, Spanish Classics, Spanish Composition, Topography and Trigonometry. Among the subjects taught to girls, as reflected in the curriculum of the Colegio de Santa Isabel, were Arithmetic, Drawing, Cutting, French, Geology, Geography, Geometry, History of Spain, Music, Sewing, Philippine History, Physics, Reading, Sacred History and Spanish Grammar.

Contrary to what the propaganda of the Spanish–American War tried to portray, the Spanish public education system was open to all natives, regardless of race, gender or economic means. The Black Legend, anti-Spanish propaganda and yellow journalism proliferated in the last two decades of the Spanish administration of the Philippines and throughout the American invasion.

Manuel L. Quezon, in his speech for the Philippine Assembly in the United States Congress in October 1914, stated that

...there were public schools in the Philippines long before the American occupation, and in fact I was educated in one of these schools, even though my hometown is such a small town, isolated in the mountains of the northeastern part of the island of Luzon.

...as early as 1866, when the total population of the Philippine Islands was only 4,411,261 souls, and when the total number of municipalities in the archipelago was 900, the total number of public schools was 841 for boys and 833 for girls, and the total number of children attending these schools was 135,098 boys and 95,260 girls. And these schools were real buildings, and the pupils living, intelligent and alert human beings. In 1892, the number of schools had increased to 2,137, of which 1,087 were for boys and 1,050 for girls. I have seen with my own eyes many of these schools and thousands of these pupils. They were not religious schools, but schools created, supported and maintained by the (Spanish) Government.

Gunnar Myrdal, a renowned Swedish economist, has pointed out that on the Asian continent during the 19th century, Japan and the Spanish Philippines were the places that stood out for their emphasis on modern public education.

Education and Filipino nationalism

Ilustrados in Madrid (c. 1890)

As a result of the increase in the number of educated Filipinos, a new social class emerged, which came to be known as the Ilustrados. In addition, with the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, travel to Spain became faster, easier and more affordable, and many Filipinos took advantage of this to continue higher education in Spain and Europe, mainly in Madrid and Barcelona.

This new enlightened class of Filipinos would later lead the Philippine independence movement, using the Spanish language as their main method of communication. The most prominent of the Ilustrados was José Rizal, who inspired the desire for independence with his novels written in Spanish. Other Filipino intellectuals, such as Graciano López Jaena, Marcelo H. del Pilar, Mariano Ponce and Antonio Luna, who had also studied in Spain, began to contribute to the cause of self-government and independence for the Philippines.

Describing this new generation of highly educated Filipinos, Fr. John N. Schumacher noted that,

Filipino higher education did not lag behind, or in certain respects was even superior to, the general level of higher education in Spain, at least outside Madrid. Perhaps the best testimony to this is the fact that so large a number of Filipino students were able to move without apparent difficulty from the educational institutions at home to those of the Peninsula and to establish quite honorable records for themselves there.

During the last quarter of the 19th century, some seventy-four periodicals came to be printed in the Philippines, among them the Diario de Manila, La España Oriental, El Comercio, Diario de Avisos, El Correo, Ilustración Filipina, La Moda Filipina, El Motín, El Oriente, La Oceanía Española, Revista de Filipinas, La Opinión, La Ilustración de Oriente, Manila Alegre, El Bejuco, El Cometa, Manililla, La Mosca, The Kon Gotas…, and many bulletins, guides and assorted gazettes. Most of them were published in Spanish, but there were also cases of bilingual publications in the local languages of each province.

The Philippines was also ahead of even some European countries in offering education for women. Ironically, it was during the period of the American occupation of the Philippines that the results of Spanish education were most visible, especially in literature, the press and film.

Criticism

On November 30, 1900, the puppet Philippine Commission issued a communication addressed to the U.S. War Department on the state of education throughout the archipelago, in which it stated that:

...Under Spanish rule a system of primary schools was established in these islands. Spanish regulations provided that there should be one male primary school teacher and one female teacher for every 5,000 inhabitants. It is clearly shown in the report of the first Philippine Commission that even this inadequate provision was never carried out. They say: "Taking the whole population at 8,000,000, we find that there is only one teacher for every 4,179 inhabitants." There were no schoolhouses, no modern furniture, and, until the Americans arrived, no good textbooks. The schools were, and are now, held in the residences of the teachers, or in buildings rented by the municipalities and used by the principals as dwellings. In some of the schools there were wooden benches and tables, but it was not at all unusual to find a school without seats for the pupils. In these primary schools reading, writing, sacred history and the catechism were taught; except in very few towns, the four elementary processes of arithmetic were attempted, and in some towns a geography book was used as a reader. Embroidery and sewing were taught. From the beginning, the schools were entirely under the supervision of the religious orders, which were inclined to emphasize secondary and higher education for a few pupils rather than to promote and advance the primary education of the masses. The result of this policy is that a few persons have stood out prominently as educated Filipinos, while the great majority of the people have not been educated at all or have been provided only with the rudiments of knowledge, simply acquiring the mechanical processes of reading and writing. The little schooling the average Filipino has had has not tended to broaden his intelligence or to give him the power of independent thought. A tendency is observed in the schools on the part of the pupils to give back, like phonographs, what they have heard or read or memorized, without seeming to have thought for themselves. As a rule, they possess mechanical skill and excel in writing and drawing. The Spaniards made very little use of this peculiar ability.

...It is said on good authority that when the Spaniards came here, several of the tribes of the Philippine Islands could read and write in their own language. At present, after three hundred years of Spanish domination, the bulk of the people cannot do as much. The Spanish Minister for the Colonies, in a report made on December 5, 1870, points out that, through a process of absorption, matters of education had become concentrated in the hands of the religious orders. He says: "Although every acknowledgment must be made of their services in former times, their narrow and exclusively religious system of education, and their imperviousness to modern or outside ideas and influences, which become more and more evident every day, made the secularization of instruction necessary."

...It has been said that in 1897 there were here in these islands 2,167 public schools. The inefficiency of these schools will be seen when it is remembered that a school under the Spanish regime was a strictly sectarian school, without grades, without a prescribed course of study and without definite standards for each year, and that they were in charge of duly certified teachers, but progressive or poorly professionally trained teachers, housed in inadequate and unsanitary buildings.

Manuel L. Quezon.

Those numbers led some people to conclude that less than 6% of the population attended school. However, that assumption was entirely misleading, because it is calculated on the basis of the entire population, including infants and the elderly, when in reality public school systems are intended mainly for children and adolescents.

To calculate the percentage of children attending school, one must use the number of school-age children, including those of primary age (5 to 13 years old) and adolescents of secondary school age (14 to 17 years old). That would yield a total percentage of about 20% of the total population. Since the 1887 census yielded a count of 6,984,727, 20% would be approximately 1.4 million. Moreover, by 1892 the number of schools had more than doubled to 2,137, of which 1,087 were for boys and 1,050 for girls, which means that the number of children attending school also increased, to at least 500,000 according to conservative estimates. That is about 35% of the school-age population.

Another piece of misinformation regularly heard was that, according to the official figures, there could not have been a school in every town of the islands, as Philippine President Manuel L. Quezon declared years later before the Philippine Assembly and the American House of Representatives. However, those official figures, used by the Philippine Commission itself, clearly put the total number of municipalities in the archipelago at 900 and the number of public schools at 2,167, which reveals that not only was there a school in every municipality of the Islands, but in most cases there were two or more.

Nor was it taken into account that the schools maintained by Spain were closed, and in many cases looted, used for troop movements, and badly damaged and destroyed during the Philippine Revolution, the Spanish–American War and the Philippine–American War. Although the free and compulsory primary education system was temporarily reestablished by the Malolos Constitution, it was finally dismantled after the Philippine–American War, which also severely affected the remaining educational infrastructure.

American President William McKinley is shown grabbing by the neck the Philippines, represented as a savage child, while the world looks on.

Finally, the Philippine Commission made no reference to the fact that the pioneering public school education introduced by Spain in the Philippines was the first of its kind in all of Asia, and the first to be established in any European colony in the world.

That system was even ahead of most of the territories of the United States at that time, since in 1900 only 34 states had any kind of compulsory schooling laws requiring attendance up to the age of 14.

As a result, the average American of that time had much less education than the average Filipino, something that was especially true among the troops who fought in the Spanish–American and Philippine–American wars, since most American soldiers generally came from a humble social background.

Despite all this, American propaganda made great efforts to make people believe that they had gone there altruistically to liberate, civilize, educate and Christianize a people of semi-savages who, because of their educational shortcomings, were incapable of governing themselves and needed the United States to do it for them. A people who, ironically, already had much higher rates of education than those of the people who were supposedly coming to "educate them."

See also

• University of Santo Tomás
• University of San Carlos
• Education in the Philippines
• Education in the Philippines during American rule
• Department of Education (Philippines)
• Education in Spain
• Philippine literature in Spanish
• Spanish language in the Philippines
• History of the Philippines
• Spanish universities in the Golden Age
• Propaganda in the Spanish–American War

Bibliography

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Further reading

Private education

• Cruz, Isagani R. (1997). Construyendo una nación: Educación privada en Filipinas. Makati City, Philippines: Fondo de Ayuda a la Educación Privada. p. 229. ISBN 971-8766-03-0. OCLC 42410789.
• Isidro y Santos, Antonio; Ramos, Máximo D. (1973). Colegios y universidades privadas en Filipinas. Quezon City, Philippines: Editorial Alemar-Phoenix, Incorporated. p. 284.

Public education

• Jacas, Hermenegildo (1894). Curso de legislación vigente de instrucción primaria en Filipinas: acomodado al programa oficial de esta asignatura en la Escuela Normal Superior de Maestros de Manila (in español). Manila, Philippines: Impr. y Litografía de J. Marty. p. 86.

Role of the missionaries in education

• Establo, Damián (1988). Gómez, Fausto (ed.). La misión de los dominicos aquí y ahora: 1587-1987. Manila, Philippines: Prensa UST. p. 173. ISBN 971-506-010-2. OCLC 20332309.
• Cruikshank, Bruce (2003). Franciscanos españoles en las Filipinas coloniales, 1578-1898: Catálogos y análisis para una historia de los filipinos en las parroquias franciscanas (illustrated ed.). Hastings, Nebraska, United States: Cornhusker Press. ISBN 0-615-12344-9. OCLC 52848382.
• Galindo, Jesús (1979). 400 años, 1578-1978: Franciscanos en Filipinas. Philippines: Impresión real. p. 146.
• Hernández, Policarpio F. (1998). Martínez, Marioneta Ocampo (ed.). Los agustinos en Filipinas y su contribución a la imprenta, la filología, la poesía, la literatura religiosa, la historia y las ciencias. Makati City, Philippines: Colegio San Agustín. p. 375. ISBN 971-604-058-X. OCLC 433101288.

Miscellaneous

• Andrade Jr., Pío (1990). El engaño de América: la historia no contada de Carlos P. Rómulo. P. Andrade. p. 198. ISBN 971-91266-0-4. OCLC 26649231.

External links

• La educación en Filipinas durante el periodo colonial (in Spanish)
• Biblioteca Miguel de Benavides
• Biblioteca Rizal
• "Educación en Filipinas 1860–1898". Archived from the original on October 18, 2002.
• Vida y Obra de Fray Juan de Plasencia
• Enseñanza y Atención Sanitaria durante el Dominio Español (in English and Spanish)
• 'Más antiguo que Harvard': la universidad filipina celebra su 400 aniversario
• Los Agustinos Recoletos celebran los 400 años de su presencia misionera en Cebú, Filipinas (in Spanish)
• 400 años de la Fundación de la Universidad de Santo Tomás de Manila (in Spanish)