Ernest Hemingway

Ernest Hemingway
Ernest Hemingway in 1939
Born	Ernest Miller Hemingway (1899-07-21)July 21, 1899 Oak Park, United States
Died	July 2, 1961(1961-07-02) (aged 61) Ketchum, United States
Cause of death	Suicide
Occupations	Writer, journalist
Movement	Lost Generation
Spouse(s)	Elizabeth Hadley Richardson (1921–1927) Pauline Pfeiffer (1927–1940) Martha Gellhorn (1940–1945) Mary Welsh Hemingway (1946–1961)
Children	Jack, Patrick and Gregory
Awards	Pulitzer Prize (1953) Nobel Prize (1954)
Signature

Ernest Miller Hemingway (Oak Park, Illinois, July 21, 1899 – Ketchum, Idaho, July 2, 1961) was an American writer and journalist, one of the leading novelists and short story writers of the 20th century.

His understated style—which he called the iceberg theory—had a strong influence on 20th-century fiction, while his adventurous life and his public image brought him the admiration of later generations. Hemingway wrote most of his work between the mid-1920s and the mid-1950s. He won the Pulitzer Prize in 1953 for The Old Man and the Sea and the following year the Nobel Prize in Literature for his complete body of work. He published seven novels, six short story collections, two essays and one play. Three novels, four books of short stories and three essays were published posthumously. Many of these are considered classics of American literature.

Hemingway was raised in Oak Park, Illinois. After finishing high school, he worked for a few months as a reporter for the Kansas City Star, before leaving for the Italian front, where he enlisted as an ambulance driver during World War I and where he met Henry Serrano Villard, with whom he became friends. In 1918 he was seriously wounded and returned home. His wartime experiences served as the basis for his novel A Farewell to Arms (1929).

In 1921 he married Hadley Richardson, the first of four wives. The couple moved to Paris, where he worked as a foreign correspondent and absorbed the influence of the modernist writers and artists of the expatriate community, the "Lost Generation" of the 1920s. Hemingway's first novel, The Sun Also Rises, was published in 1926.

After his divorce from Hadley Richardson in 1927, Hemingway married Pauline Pfeiffer. The couple divorced after Hemingway returned from the Spanish Civil War, which he covered as a journalist, and which was the basis of his novel For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940). He married his third wife, Martha Gellhorn, in 1940. They separated when he met Mary Welsh in London during World War II. He was present as a journalist at the Normandy landings and the Liberation of Paris.

Ernest Hemingway had a deep and complex relationship with the Hispanic world, which significantly influenced his life and work. His connection with Spain, Cuba and, to a lesser extent, other Spanish-speaking countries shaped his literary style, his themes and his view of the world. The Spanish Civil War, which he covered as a journalist, was the basis of his novel For Whom the Bell Tolls. In Cuba he wrote The Old Man and the Sea, which earned him the Pulitzer Prize and contributed to his Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954.

Shortly after the publication of The Old Man and the Sea in 1952, Hemingway went on safari to Africa, where he nearly died in two successive plane crashes that left him in pain and with health problems for much of the rest of his life. Hemingway maintained permanent residences in Key West, Florida, in the 1930s, and in Cuba in the 1940s and 1950s. In 1959 he bought a house in Ketchum, Idaho, where he took his own life on July 2, 1961, at the age of 61.

Biography

Early years

Ernest Hemingway was the second child, and first son, of Clarence and Grace Hemingway.

Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in Oak Park, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago. His father, Clarence Edmonds Hemingway, was a physician, and his mother, Grace Hall Hemingway, was a musician. Both were well educated and highly respected in the conservative community of Oak Park, a community of which Frank Lloyd Wright, one of its residents, said: "So many churches for so many good people." For some time after their marriage, Clarence and Grace Hemingway lived with Grace's father, Ernest Hall, after whom they named their first grandson. Ernest Hemingway would later say that he disliked his name, which he "associated with the naive, even foolish, hero of Oscar Wilde's play The Importance of Being Earnest". Grace followed the Victorian custom of not differentiating children's clothing by gender. With only a year's difference in age between the two, Ernest and Marcelline looked very much alike. Grace wanted them to appear to be twins, so that during Ernest's first three years of life Grace kept his hair long and dressed both children in similarly frilly feminine clothing. The family eventually moved to a seven-bedroom house in a respectable neighborhood with a music studio for Grace and a medical office for Clarence.

Hemingway's mother, a well-known musician in the town, where she gave concerts. As an adult, Hemingway claimed to hate his mother, although biographer Michael S. Reynolds points out that Hemingway mirrored her energy and enthusiasm. Her insistence that he learn to play the cello became a "source of conflict," but the writer later admitted that the music lessons were useful for his work, as evidenced by the counterpoint structure of the novel For Whom the Bell Tolls. The family had a summer house called Windemere on Walloon Lake, near Petoskey, Michigan, where his father taught him, as a four-year-old boy, to hunt, fish and camp in the woods and lakes of northern Michigan. His early experiences in nature instilled in him a passion for outdoor adventure and for life in remote or isolated areas.

Hemingway family photograph in 1905, from the left: Marcelline, Sunny, Clarence, Grace, Ursula and Ernest.

From 1913 to 1917, Hemingway attended Oak Park and River Forest High School, where he played a variety of sports, including boxing, track and field, water polo and football. He excelled in English classes and, for two years, played in the school orchestra with his sister Marcelline. In his junior year he took a journalism class taught by Fannie Biggs, which was conducted "as though the classroom were a newspaper office." The best writers in the class submitted their articles to the school newspaper, The Trapeze. Both Hemingway and Marcelline submitted pieces to the Trapeze; Hemingway's first article dealt with a local performance by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and was published in January 1916. He continued editing the Trapeze and the Tabula (the school yearbook), imitating the language of sportswriters under the pen name Ring Lardner, Jr.—a nod to Ring Lardner of the Chicago Tribune. Like Mark Twain, Stephen Crane, Theodore Dreiser and Sinclair Lewis, Hemingway was a journalist before becoming a novelist; after leaving high school he went to work as a cub reporter for the Kansas City Star newspaper. Although he worked there for only six months, the Star's style guide formed the foundation of his writing: "Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous English. Be positive, not negative."

World War I

Milan, 1918, Hemingway in uniform. He drove ambulances for two months, until he was wounded.

In early 1918, after being rejected by the United States Army because of poor eyesight, Hemingway responded to a Red Cross recruitment drive in Kansas City and signed on to become an ambulance driver in Italy. He left New York in May and arrived in Paris while the city was under bombardment by German artillery. By June he was on the Italian front. It was probably at this time that he met John Dos Passos, with whom he had a difficult relationship for decades. On his first day in Milan he was sent to the scene of a munitions factory explosion, where rescue teams recovered the shattered remains of the female workers. He described the incident in his book Death in the Afternoon: "I remember that after we searched quite thoroughly for the complete dead we collected fragments." A few days later he was stationed at Fossalta di Piave.

On July 8 he was badly wounded by mortar fire, just as he had returned from the canteen with chocolate and cigarettes for the men at the front. Despite his wounds, Hemingway managed to rescue an Italian soldier, which earned him the Silver Medal of Military Valor from the Italian government. Only eighteen years old, Hemingway commented on the events: "When you go to war as a boy, you have a great illusion of immortality. It is other people who die, it doesn't happen to you. ... Then, when you are badly wounded for the first time, you lose that illusion and you know it can happen to you." He suffered severe shrapnel wounds to both legs, and underwent an immediate operation at a distribution center, spending five days in a field hospital before being transferred to the Red Cross hospital in Milan for recovery. He spent six months in the hospital, where he met "Chink" Dorman-Smith, with whom he forged a strong friendship that lasted for decades. He also shared a room with the future American ambassador and writer Henry Serrano Villard.

While recovering, he fell in love for the first time with Agnes von Kurowsky, a Red Cross nurse seven years his senior. By the time he was discharged from the hospital and returned to the United States in January 1919, he believed that Agnes would join him within months and that they would marry. In March, however, Agnes wrote to him that she had become engaged to an Italian officer. Biographer Jeffrey Meyers maintains that Hemingway was devastated and scarred by Agnes's rejection, and that in future relationships he followed a pattern of leaving a wife before she could leave him.

Toronto and Chicago

Hemingway returned home in early 1919 and went through a period of readjustment. Barely twenty years old, the war had given him a maturity that did not fit well with the need to recover and a life at home without work. As Reynolds explains, "Hemingway could not really tell his parents what he thought when he saw his bloody knee." He could not tell them how frightened he had been "in another country with surgeons who could not tell him in English whether he would lose his leg or not." In September he went on a camping and fishing trip with high school friends to the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. This experience became a source of inspiration for his short story "Big Two-Hearted River," in which the semi-autobiographical character Nick Adams goes into the wilderness to seek solitude after returning from the war. A family friend offered him a position in Toronto, and with nothing else to do, he accepted. At the end of that year he began working as a freelance writer and foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star Weekly, where he met and befriended fellow journalist and novelist Morley Callaghan, who later introduced him to F. Scott Fitzgerald in Paris, an event that led to the infamous boxing match between Hemingway and the Canadian. He returned to Michigan the following June, and then moved to Chicago in September 1920 to live with friends, while continuing to submit his articles to the Toronto Star.

In Chicago, he worked as associate editor of the monthly magazine Cooperative Commonwealth, where he met the novelist Sherwood Anderson. When Hadley Richardson, a native of St. Louis, came to Chicago to visit the sister of Hemingway's roommate, he fell in love with her and later claimed, "I knew she was the girl I was going to marry." Hadley was red-haired, with a "nurturing instinct," and was eight years older than Hemingway. Despite the age difference, Hadley, who had grown up with an overprotective mother, seemed less mature than usual for a young woman her age. Bernice Kert, author of The Hemingway Women, states that Hadley "evoked" Agnes, despite having a childishness that Agnes lacked. The two corresponded for a few months, and decided to marry and travel to Europe. They wanted to visit Rome, but Sherwood Anderson convinced them to visit Paris instead, and wrote letters of introduction for the young couple. They were married on September 3, 1921; two months later, Hemingway was hired as a foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star and the couple left for Paris. On the marriage of Hemingway and Hadley, Meyers comments: "With Hadley, Hemingway achieved everything he had hoped for with Agnes: the love of a beautiful woman, a comfortable income, a life in Europe."

Paris

Hemingway's 1923 passport photo. At this time he lived in Paris with his wife Hadley and worked as a journalist.

Carlos Baker, Hemingway's first biographer, believes that while Anderson suggested Paris because "the monetary exchange rate" made the city a cheap place to live, more important was that it was the place where "the most interesting people in the world" lived. In Paris, Hemingway met writers such as Gertrude Stein, James Joyce and Ezra Pound (who "could help a young writer up the rungs of a career"), among others.

The Hemingway of the early Paris years was a "tall, handsome, muscular, broad-shouldered, brown-eyed, rosy-cheeked, square-jawed, soft-voiced" young man. He and Hadley lived in a small walk-up building at 74 rue du Cardinal Lemoine in the Latin Quarter, and he worked in a rented room in a nearby building. Stein, who was the bastion of modernism in Paris, became Hemingway's mentor and godmother to his son Jack; she introduced him to the expatriate artists and writers of the Montparnasse quarter, whom she referred to as the "Lost Generation," a term popularized by Hemingway with the publication of The Sun Also Rises. As a regular at Stein's salon, Hemingway met influential painters such as Pablo Picasso, Joan Miró and Juan Gris. In time he drifted away from Stein's influence and their relationship deteriorated into a literary feud that lasted for decades. While living in Paris in 1922, Hemingway struck up a friendship with the artist Henry Strater, who painted two portraits of him.

The American poet Ezra Pound met Hemingway by chance in 1922 at Shakespeare and Company, Sylvia Beach's bookstore. The two toured Italy in 1923 and lived on the same street in 1924. They forged a strong friendship, and in Hemingway, Pound recognized and fostered a young talent. Pound introduced Hemingway to the Irish writer James Joyce, with whom Hemingway frequently embarked on "alcoholic sprees."

During his first twenty months in Paris, Hemingway filed eighty-eight stories for the Toronto Star newspaper. He covered the Greco-Turkish War, where he witnessed the burning of Smyrna, and wrote travel pieces such as "Tuna Fishing in Spain" and "Trout Fishing All Across Europe: Spain Has the Best, Then Germany." Hemingway was devastated to learn that Hadley had lost a suitcase containing his manuscripts at the Gare de Lyon while traveling to Geneva to meet him in December 1922. The following September the couple returned to Toronto, where their son John Hadley Nicanor was born on October 10, 1923. Hemingway's first book, Three Stories and Ten Poems, was published during his absence. Two of the stories it contained were all that remained after the loss of the suitcase, and the third had been written during the spring in Italy. Within months a second volume, in our time, was published. The small volume included six vignettes and a dozen stories that Hemingway had written the previous summer during his first visit to Spain, where he discovered the thrill of the corrida. He missed Paris, found Toronto boring, and wanted to return to the life of a writer, rather than live the life of a journalist.

Hemingway, Hadley and their son (nicknamed Bumby) returned to Paris in January 1924 and settled into a new apartment on the rue Notre-Dame-des-Champs. Hemingway helped Ford Madox Ford edit the literary magazine The Transatlantic Review, which published works by Ezra Pound, John Dos Passos, Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven and Gertrude Stein, as well as some of Hemingway's own early stories, such as "Indian Camp." When In Our Time was published in 1925, the dust jacket bore comments from Ford. "Indian Camp" received great praise; Ford regarded it as an important early work by a young writer, and critics in the United States praised Hemingway for revitalizing the short story genre with his fresh style and his use of declarative sentences. Six months earlier, Hemingway had met F. Scott Fitzgerald, and the two developed a friendship of mutual "admiration and hostility." Fitzgerald had published The Great Gatsby the same year: Hemingway read it, liked it, and decided that his next work had to be a novel.

Ernest, Hadley and Bumby Hemingway in Schruns, Austria, in 1926, a few months before they separated.

Ernest Hemingway with Lady Duff Twysden, Hadley and friends in July 1925, during the trip to Spain that provided the inspiration for The Sun Also Rises.

In 1923, together with his wife Hadley, Hemingway visited the festival of San Fermín in Pamplona (Spain) for the first time, where he became fascinated by the bullfight. The Hemingways returned to Pamplona in 1924, where they befriended the hotelier Juanito Quintana, who would introduce them to a good number of bullfighters and aficionados, and a third time in June 1925; that year they brought along a group of American and British expatriates: Hemingway's childhood friend Bill Smith, Stewart, Lady Duff Twysden (recently divorced) and her lover Pat Guthrie, and Harold Loeb. A few days after the festival ended, on his birthday (July 21), he began writing the draft of The Sun Also Rises, finishing eight weeks later. A few months later, from December 1925, the Hemingways spent the winter in Schruns, Austria, where Hemingway began an extensive revision of the manuscript. Pauline Pfeiffer joined them in January and, against Hadley's advice, urged him to sign a contract with the publishing house Scribner. He left Austria for a short trip to New York to meet with the publishers, and on his return, during a stop in Paris, he began an affair with Pauline, before returning to Schruns to finish the revisions in March. The manuscript arrived in New York in April; he corrected the final proofs in Paris in August 1926, and Scribner published the novel in October.

The Sun Also Rises epitomized the postwar expatriate generation, received good reviews, and was "recognized as Hemingway's greatest work." Hemingway later wrote to his editor Max Perkins that the "point of the book" was not so much about a generation being lost, but that "the earth abideth forever"; he believed that the characters in The Sun Also Rises may have been "battered," but not lost.

Hemingway's marriage to Hadley deteriorated while he was working on The Sun Also Rises. In the spring of 1926 Hadley became aware of his affair with Pauline Pfeiffer, who came with them to Pamplona in July. On their return to Paris, Hadley asked for a separation, and in November she formally requested a divorce. They divided their possessions, and Hadley accepted Hemingway's offer of the proceeds from The Sun Also Rises. The couple divorced in January 1927, and Hemingway married Pauline Pfeiffer in May of the same year.

Ernest and Pauline Hemingway in Paris, 1927.

Pauline, who came from a wealthy Catholic family in Arkansas, had moved to Paris to work for Vogue magazine. Hemingway converted to Catholicism before their marriage. They honeymooned in Le Grau-du-Roi, where Hemingway contracted anthrax and where he planned his next collection of short stories, titled Men Without Women, which was published in October 1927. By the end of the year Pauline, who was pregnant, wanted to return to the United States. John Dos Passos recommended Key West in Florida, and they left Paris in 1928. That spring Hemingway suffered a serious injury in his Paris bathroom when he pulled a skylight down on his head, thinking he was pulling the toilet chain. This left him with a prominent scar on his forehead that he would carry for the rest of his life. When asked about the scar, he was reluctant to answer. After his departure from Paris, Hemingway "never again lived in a big city."

Key West and Cuba

In late spring Hemingway and Pauline traveled to Kansas City, where their son Patrick was born on June 28, 1928. Pauline had a difficult delivery, which Hemingway fictionalized in A Farewell to Arms. After Patrick's birth, Pauline and Hemingway traveled to Wyoming, Massachusetts and New York. In the winter he was in New York with Bumby, about to board a train to Florida, when he received a telegram telling him that his father had committed suicide. Hemingway was devastated; shortly before, he had sent a letter to his father telling him not to worry about financial difficulties; the letter arrived minutes after the suicide. He realized how Hadley must have felt after her own father's suicide in 1903, and commented: "I'll probably go the same way."

On his return to Key West in December, Hemingway worked on his novel A Farewell to Arms before traveling to France in January. He had finished it in August, but delayed the revision. Serialization in Scribner's Magazine was scheduled to begin in May, but in April Hemingway was still working on the ending, which he may have rewritten as many as seventeen times. The novel was finally published on September 27. Biographer James Mellow believes that A Farewell to Arms established Hemingway as a major American writer and that it displayed a level of complexity not apparent in The Sun Also Rises. In Spain, during the summer of 1929, Hemingway prepared his next work, Death in the Afternoon. He wanted to write a comprehensive treatise on bullfighting and bullfighters, complete with glossaries and appendices, because he believed the bullfight was "of great tragic interest, being literally of life and death."

During the 1930s Hemingway spent the winters in Key West and the summers in Wyoming, where he found "the most beautiful country he had seen in the American West," and where he hunted deer, elk and grizzly bears. He was joined there by Dos Passos, and in November 1930, after taking Dos Passos to the train station in Billings, Hemingway broke his arm in a car accident. The surgeon treated the compound spiral fracture, binding the bone with kangaroo tendon. He was hospitalized for seven weeks, and the nerves in his writing hand took a year to heal, a period during which he suffered intense pain.

Hemingway's house in Key West, Florida, where he lived with Pauline. He wrote To Have and Have Not on the second floor of the pool house, not visible in the photo.

His third son, Gregory Hancock Hemingway, was born the following year, on November 12, 1931, in Kansas City. Pauline's uncle bought the couple a house with a carriage house in Key West, and the second floor of the carriage house was converted into a writing studio. Its location across the street from the lighthouse made it easy to find his way home after a long night of drinking. While in Key West, Hemingway frequented the local bar Sloppy Joe's. He invited friends—including Waldo Peirce, Dos Passos and Max Perkins—to join him on fishing trips and on an expedition to the Dry Tortugas. Meanwhile, he continued to travel to Europe and to Cuba, and although he wrote of Key West in 1933, "We have a fine house here, and the kids are all well," Mellow believes that "he was clearly restless."

In 1933, Hemingway and Pauline went on safari to East Africa. The ten-week trip provided material for Green Hills of Africa, as well as the short stories The Snows of Kilimanjaro and The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber. The couple visited Mombasa, Nairobi and Machakos in Kenya, and then traveled to Tanganyika, where they hunted in the Serengeti around Lake Manyara, and to the west and southeast of the present-day Tarangire National Park. Their guide was the noted "white hunter" Philip Hope Percival, who had guided Theodore Roosevelt on his 1909 safari. During these travels Hemingway contracted amoebic dysentery, which caused a prolapsed intestine, and he was evacuated by plane to Nairobi, an experience reflected in "The Snows of Kilimanjaro." On Hemingway's return to Key West in early 1934, he began work on Green Hills of Africa, which was published in 1935 to mixed reviews.

Ernest, Pauline, Bumby, Patrick and Gregory Hemingway pose with marlin after a fishing trip to Bimini in 1935.

Hemingway bought a boat in 1934, named it Pilar, and began sailing the Caribbean Sea. In 1935 he first arrived at Bimini, where he spent a considerable amount of time. During this period he also worked on To Have and Have Not, published in 1937 while he was in Spain, the only novel he wrote during the 1930s.

Spanish Civil War and World War II

Hemingway (center) with the Dutch filmmaker Joris Ivens and the German writer Ludwig Renn (who served as an officer in the International Brigades) in Spain during the Spanish Civil War, 1937.

In 1937 Hemingway agreed to work as a correspondent covering the Spanish Civil War for the North American Newspaper Alliance (NANA), and arrived in Spain in March, together with the Dutch filmmaker Joris Ivens, visiting, among other cities, Valencia and Madrid. Ivens, who was filming The Spanish Earth, wanted Hemingway to replace John Dos Passos as screenwriter, since Dos Passos had abandoned the project when his friend and translator José Robles Pazos was arrested and very probably murdered by the NKVD. The incident changed Dos Passos's opinion of the leftist Republicans, creating a rift between him and Hemingway, who later spread the rumor that Dos Passos had left Spain out of cowardice.

The journalist and writer Martha Gellhorn, whom Hemingway had met in Key West the previous Christmas (1936), joined him in Spain. Like Hadley, Martha was a native of St. Louis, and like Pauline she had worked for Vogue in Paris. Of Martha, Kert states that "she never catered to him the way other women did." In late 1937, while in Madrid with Martha, Hemingway wrote his only play, The Fifth Column, while the city was being bombarded. He went back to Key West for a few months and then returned to Spain twice in 1938, where he was present at the Battle of the Ebro, the last Republican stand, and was among the last British and American journalists to cross the river to leave the battle.

In the spring of 1939, Hemingway sailed to Cuba in his boat to live at the Hotel Ambos Mundos in Havana. This was the first phase of a slow and painful separation from Pauline, which had begun when Hemingway met Martha. Martha soon joined him in Cuba, and they bought Finca Vigía, a 61,000 m² estate twenty-four kilometers from Havana. In the summer, Pauline and the children left Hemingway after the family had been reunited during a visit to Wyoming. After his divorce from Pauline was finalized, he married Martha on November 20, 1940, in Cheyenne, Wyoming. As he had done after his divorce from Hadley, he changed residences, moving his main summer residence to Ketchum, Idaho, on the outskirts of the new resort of Sun Valley, and his winter residence to Cuba. Hemingway, who had been disgusted when a friend in Paris allowed his cats to eat from the table, fell in love with cats in Cuba, keeping dozens of them on the estate.

In March 1939 he began writing his most famous novel, For Whom the Bell Tolls, which he finished in July 1940. It was published in October 1940. In keeping with his routine of changing residences while working on a manuscript, he wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls in Cuba, Wyoming and Sun Valley. For Whom the Bell Tolls, selected by the Book-of-the-Month Club, sold half a million copies within months, received a nomination for the Pulitzer Prize and, as Meyers explains, "triumphantly re-established Hemingway's literary reputation."

Hemingway with his third wife, Martha Gellhorn, posing with General Yu Hanmou in Chungking, China, in 1941.

Hemingway and his sons Patrick (left) and Gregory, with three cats, at Finca Vigía in mid-1942.

In January 1941 Martha was sent to China on assignment for Collier's Weekly magazine. Hemingway accompanied her and sent his dispatches to the newspaper PM, but on the whole he disliked China. They returned to Cuba before the United States declaration of war in December, whereupon he convinced the Cuban government to help him refit his boat, the Pilar, with the intention of using it to ambush German submarines off the coast of Cuba.

From May 1944 to March 1945 Hemingway was in London and Europe. When Hemingway first arrived in London he met the Time magazine correspondent Mary Welsh, with whom he fell in love. Martha, who had been forced to cross the Atlantic on a ship loaded with explosives because he had refused to help her get a press pass on a plane, arrived in London to find Hemingway hospitalized with a concussion from a car accident. Unsympathetic to his physical condition, she accused him of being a bully and told him that she was "through, absolutely finished." The last time he saw Martha was in March 1945, as he was preparing to return to Cuba. Meanwhile, at his third meeting with Mary Welsh, he asked her to marry him.

Hemingway, wearing a large bandage on his head, was present during the Normandy landings, although he remained on a landing craft because the military considered him "precious cargo," though biographer Kenneth Lynn maintains that he fabricated stories that he went ashore during the landing. In late July, he attached himself to the "22nd Infantry Regiment," commanded by Colonel Charles Buck Lanham, which was heading toward Paris, and Hemingway became the de facto leader of a small band of village militiamen in Rambouillet, on the outskirts of Paris. On Hemingway's exploits, the historian Paul Fussell remarked: "Hemingway got into considerable trouble playing infantry captain to a group of Resistance people that he gathered, because a correspondent is not supposed to lead troops, even if he does it well." This was in violation of the Geneva Convention, and Hemingway was formally charged; he said that he resolved the matter by claiming that he had only offered advice.

Hemingway with Colonel Charles (Buck) T. Lanham in Germany in 1944, during the fighting in the Hürtgenwald, after which he fell ill with pneumonia.

On August 25, 1944, he was present at the Liberation of Paris, although, contrary to legend, Hemingway was not the first to enter the city, nor did he liberate the Ritz. Nevertheless, he attended a gathering organized by Sylvia Beach, where he "made peace" with Gertrude Stein. That same year, he was present during the heavy fighting of the Battle of Hürtgen Forest. On December 17, 1944, feverish and in poor condition, he had driven to Luxembourg to cover what would later be called the Battle of the Bulge. However, as soon as he arrived, Lanham handed him over to the doctors, who hospitalized him with pneumonia; by the time he recovered, a week later, most of the fighting was over.

In 1947, Hemingway was awarded a Bronze Star for his bravery during World War II. He was recognized for his valor, having been "under fire in combat areas in order to obtain an accurate picture of conditions," with the citation stating that "through his talent of expression, Mr. Hemingway enabled readers to obtain a vivid picture of the difficulties and triumphs of the front-line soldier and his organization in combat."

Cuba and the Nobel Prize

Ernest Hemingway at Finca Vigía

Hemingway said that from 1942 to 1945 he "was out of business as a writer." In 1946 he married Mary Welsh, who had an ectopic pregnancy five months later. The Hemingway family suffered a series of accidents and health problems in the years following the war: in a 1945 car accident Ernest "smashed his knee" and sustained another "deep wound on his forehead"; Mary broke first her right ankle and then her left in successive skiing accidents. A 1947 car accident left Patrick with a head wound and seriously ill. Hemingway sank into depression as his literary friends began to die: in 1939 W. B. Yeats and Ford Madox Ford; in 1940 Scott Fitzgerald; in 1941 Sherwood Anderson and James Joyce; in 1946 Gertrude Stein; and the following year, in 1947, Max Perkins, Hemingway's longtime editor and friend at the Scribner publishing house. During this period he suffered from severe headaches, high blood pressure, weight problems and eventually diabetes—much of which was the result of earlier accidents and many years of heavy drinking.

Nevertheless, in January 1946 he began work on The Garden of Eden, finishing eight hundred pages by June. During the postwar years he also began work on a trilogy, tentatively titled "The Land," "The Sea" and "The Air," with the aim of combining them into a novel titled The Sea Book. However, both projects stalled, and Mellow observes that Hemingway's inability to follow through on them was "a symptom of his troubles" during these years.

Ernest Hemingway in the cabin of his boat Pilar, in the coastal waters of Cuba.

In 1948, Hemingway and Mary traveled to Europe and stayed in Venice for several months. There, Hemingway fell in love with Adriana Ivancich, a young woman of 19. The story of this platonic love inspired the novel Across the River and Into the Trees, which he wrote in Cuba during a time of conflict with Mary; it was published in 1950 to negative reviews. The following year, furious at the critical reception of Across the River and Into the Trees, he wrote the draft of The Old Man and the Sea in eight weeks, saying that it was "the best I can write ever for all of my life." The Old Man and the Sea, which became a Book-of-the-Month selection, made Hemingway an international celebrity and received the Pulitzer Prize in May 1953, a month before he left on his second trip to Africa.

Hemingway and his wife Mary on safari in 1953–1954, before suffering the plane crashes.

Hemingway writing at a campsite in Kenya, around 1953.

In 1953, after fifteen years of absence, Hemingway returned to Spain, where the Francoist authorities did not trouble him, and he once again attended the San Fermín festival in Pamplona. In 1954, while in Africa, Hemingway nearly died in two successive plane crashes that left him seriously injured. As a Christmas present for Mary he had chartered a sightseeing flight over the Belgian Congo. On the way to photograph Murchison Falls from the air, the plane struck an abandoned utility pole and had to make a "crash landing in heavy brush." Hemingway's injuries included a head wound, while Mary broke two ribs. The next day, attempting to reach medical care in Entebbe, they boarded a second plane, which exploded on takeoff; Hemingway suffered burns and another concussion, this one serious enough to cause leaking of cerebral fluid. They eventually arrived in Entebbe, where they found that journalists were covering the story of Hemingway's death. He informed the reporters of their mistake and spent the following weeks recuperating and reading his premature obituaries. Despite his injuries, Hemingway accompanied Patrick and his wife on a planned fishing expedition in February, but the pain made him irascible and difficult to deal with. In a bushfire he was injured again, suffering second-degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm. Months later, in Venice, Mary listed Hemingway's serious injuries: two cracked intervertebral discs, a ruptured liver and kidney, a dislocated shoulder and a fractured skull. The accidents may have precipitated the physical deterioration that was to follow. After the plane crashes, Hemingway, who had been "a thinly controlled alcoholic" for much of his life, drank more than usual to combat the pain of his injuries.

In October 1954, Hemingway received the Nobel Prize in Literature. He modestly told the press that Carl Sandburg, Isak Dinesen and Bernard Berenson deserved the prize, but that the money would be welcome. Mellow states that Hemingway "had coveted the Nobel Prize," but when he won it, months after his plane accident and the worldwide press coverage that followed, "there must have been a lingering suspicion in Hemingway's mind that his obituary notices had played a part in the academy's decision." Because he was still suffering pain from the accidents in Africa, he decided not to travel to Stockholm. Instead he sent a speech to be read, in which he defined the writer's life: "Writing, at its best, is a lonely life. Organizations for writers palliate the writer's loneliness, but I doubt if they improve his writing. He grows in public stature as he sheds his loneliness, and often his work deteriorates. For he does his work alone, and if he is a good enough writer he must face eternity, or the lack of it, each day."

From late 1955 to early 1956 Hemingway was bedridden. He was told to stop drinking to mitigate the damage to his liver, advice he initially followed but later ignored. In October 1956 he returned to Europe and met the Basque writer Pío Baroja, who was seriously ill and died weeks later. During the trip, Hemingway fell ill again and was treated for "high blood pressure, liver disease and arteriosclerosis."

In November, while in Paris, he remembered the trunks he had stored at the Hotel Ritz in 1928 and never retrieved. The trunks were filled with notebooks and writings from his Paris years. When he returned to Cuba in 1957, excited by the discovery, he began to shape the recovered work into his memoir A Moveable Feast. By 1959 he had concluded a period of intense activity: he finished A Moveable Feast (scheduled for release the following year); brought True at First Light to 200,000 words; added chapters to The Garden of Eden; and worked on Islands in the Stream. The last three were stored in a safe-deposit box in Havana while he concentrated on the finishing touches of A Moveable Feast. Reynolds states that it was during this period that Hemingway sank into the depression from which he was unable to recover.

Finca Vigía became increasingly crowded with guests and tourists, and Hemingway, who was beginning to feel unhappy with life there, was considering moving permanently to Idaho. In 1959 he bought a house overlooking the Big Wood River on the outskirts of Ketchum, and left Cuba, even though he apparently maintained good relations with the government of Fidel Castro, telling the New York Times that he was "delighted" with Castro's overthrow of Fulgencio Batista. He was in Cuba in November 1959, between his return from Pamplona and his journey to Idaho, and also for his birthday the following year; however, that same year he and Mary decided to leave Cuba after hearing the news that Castro wanted to nationalize the property of Americans and other foreigners on the island. In July 1960, the Hemingways left Cuba for the last time, leaving art and manuscripts in a bank vault in Havana. After the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961, Finca Vigía, including Hemingway's collection of some "eight thousand books," was expropriated by the Cuban government.

Idaho and suicide

Hemingway in January 1959, bird hunting at Silver Creek, near Picabo, Idaho. He is with Gary Cooper and a local resident, Bobbie Peterson.

Until the end of the 1950s Hemingway continued to revise the material that would be published as A Moveable Feast. In the summer of 1959 he visited Spain to prepare a series of articles on bullfighting commissioned by Life Magazine, returning to Cuba in January 1960 to work on the manuscript. Life wanted only 10,000 words, but the manuscript grew out of control. For the first time in his life he was unable to organize his writing, and he asked A. E. Hotchner to travel to Cuba to help him. Hotchner helped him trim the text for Life to 40,000 words, and Scribner agreed to a full-length book version, titled The Dangerous Summer, of almost 130,000 words. To Hotchner, Hemingway seemed "unusually hesitant, disorganized and confused," and he suffered greatly from failing eyesight.

On July 25, 1960, Hemingway and Mary left Cuba for the last time. Hemingway then traveled alone to Spain to be photographed for the Life Magazine article. A few days later press reports appeared saying that he was seriously ill and about to die, which panicked Mary until she received a telegram from Hemingway saying "Reports false. Enroute Madrid. Love Papa." He was, however, seriously ill, and believed himself to be on the verge of a breakdown. He felt lonely and stayed in bed for days, withdrawing into silence, despite the publication of the first installments of The Dangerous Summer in Life in September 1960 and the good reviews the article received. In October he traveled from Spain to New York, where he refused to leave Mary's apartment on the pretext that he was being watched. She quickly took him to Idaho, where George Saviers (a Sun Valley physician) met them at the train.

At this time, Hemingway was worried about his finances and his safety. He was concerned about his taxes, and said that he would never return to Cuba to retrieve the manuscripts he had left in a bank vault. He became paranoid and thought that the FBI was actively monitoring his movements in Ketchum. By the end of November Mary was desperate, and Saviers suggested that Hemingway be moved to the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota, where he may have believed he was going to be treated for hypertension. In an attempt at anonymity, he was registered under his doctor's surname, Saviers. Meyers writes that "an aura of secrecy surrounds Hemingway's treatment at the Mayo Clinic," but confirms that he was given electroconvulsive therapy as many as 15 times in December 1960, and was then "released in ruins" in January 1961. Reynolds gained access to Hemingway's records at the Mayo Clinic, which indicate that he was treated for a depressive condition that may have been caused by a combination of medications.

According to A. E. Hotchner, a close associate of Hemingway's and author of Papa Hemingway and Hemingway and His World, Hemingway complained for years that he was under FBI surveillance. Hotchner and other friends of the Nobel laureate dismissed such claims as paranoia. It came as a surprise to Hotchner when, in 1980, the FBI was forced to release some of its Hemingway files (they did not release some that would have exposed them as culpable in his death) and it turned out that Hemingway had been right. Hotchner believes that the FBI surveillance "substantially contributed to [his friend's] anguish and . . . to his suicide," adding that he had "regrettably misjudged" his friend's fear of the organization.

Back in Ketchum three months later, in April 1961, one morning in the kitchen, Mary "found Hemingway holding a shotgun." She called Saviers, who gave him a sedative and admitted him to the Sun Valley hospital; from there he was returned to the Mayo Clinic for more electroshock treatments. He was released at the end of June and arrived at his home in Ketchum on June 30. Two days later, in the early morning of July 2, 1961, Hemingway "deliberately" shot himself with his favorite shotgun. He unlocked the basement storeroom where he kept his guns, went upstairs to the front entrance foyer of his house, and "pushed two shells into the twelve-gauge Boss shotgun, put the end of the barrel into his mouth, pulled the trigger and blew out his brains." Mary called the Sun Valley hospital, and Dr. Scott Earle arrived at the house "fifteen minutes" later. Despite his finding that Hemingway "had died of a self-inflicted wound to the head," the story told to the press was that the death had been "accidental." However, in a press interview five years later, Mary Hemingway admitted that her husband had committed suicide.

During his final years, Hemingway's behavior was similar to that of his father before he killed himself; his father may have suffered from a genetic disease, hemochromatosis, in which the inability to metabolize iron culminates in mental and physical deterioration. Medical records made available in 1991 confirm that Hemingway's hemochromatosis had been diagnosed in early 1961. His sister Ursula and his brother Leicester also took their own lives. Added to Hemingway's physical ailments was the problem that he had been a heavy drinker for most of his life.

Hemingway's family and friends traveled to Ketchum for the funeral, which was officiated by the local Catholic priest, who believed that his death had been accidental. His brother Leicester wrote of the funeral (during which an altar boy fainted at the head of the coffin): "It seemed to me Ernest would have approved of it all."

Style

The New York Times wrote in 1926 of Hemingway's first novel: "No amount of analysis can convey the quality of The Sun Also Rises. It is a truly gripping story, told in a lean, hard, athletic narrative prose that puts more literary English to shame." The Sun Also Rises is written in the spare, precise prose that made Hemingway famous, and it influenced the style of countless pulp crime novels and works of fiction. In 1954, when Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, it was for "his mastery of the art of narrative, most recently demonstrated in The Old Man and the Sea, and for the influence that he has exerted on contemporary style." Paul Smith writes that Hemingway, in his first stories published in in our time, was still experimenting with his writing style; he tried to avoid complicated syntax, and about 70% of the sentences are simple sentences—a plain syntax without subordination.

If a writer of prose knows enough about what he is writing about, he may omit things that he knows, and the reader, if the writer is writing truly enough, will have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated them.

—Ernest Hemingway in Death in the Afternoon

Henry Louis Gates believes that Hemingway's style was formed "in reaction to [his] experience of world war." After World War I, he and other modernists "lost faith in the central institutions of Western civilization," reacted against the elaborate style of 19th-century writers, and created a style "in which meaning is established through dialogue, through action, and silences—a fiction in which nothing crucial, or at least very little, is stated explicitly."

Developing this connection between Hemingway and other modernist writers, Irene Gammel believes that his style was carefully cultivated and honed with an eye on the avant-garde of the era. Hungry for "avant-garde experimentation" and for rebellion against the "sober modernism" of Ford Madox Ford, Hemingway published the work of Gertrude Stein and Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven in the magazine the transatlantic review. As Gammel points out, Hemingway was "introduced to the Baroness's experimental style during a time when he was actively trimming the verbal 'fat' off his own style, as well as flexing his writer's muscles to confront conventional taste."

Because he began as a writer of short stories, Baker believes that Hemingway learned to "get the most from the least, how to prune language, how to multiply intensities, and how to tell nothing but the truth in a way that allowed for telling more than the truth." Hemingway called his style the iceberg theory: the facts float above the water; the supporting structure and the symbolism operate out of sight. The concept of the iceberg theory is also known as the "theory of omission." Hemingway believed that the writer can describe one thing (such as Nick Adams fishing in "Big Two-Hearted River") while an entirely different thing is happening beneath the surface (Nick Adams concentrating on fishing to the extent that he does not have to think about anything else).

Jackson Benson believes that Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices for life in general, not only his own life. For example, Benson postulates that Hemingway used his experiences and drew them out with "what if" scenarios: "What if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night? What if I were wounded and made crazy, what would happen if I were sent back to the front?"

I was always confused by the words sacred, glorious, sacrifice, and the expression "in vain" ... I had seen nothing sacred, and the things that were called glorious had no glory, and the sacrifices were like the stockyards at Chicago .... Abstract words such as glory, honor, courage or hallow were incidents, compared with the names of rivers, the numbers of regiments, the dates.

—A Farewell to Arms

The simplicity of the prose is deceptive. Zoe Trodd believes that Hemingway crafted skeletal sentences in response to Henry James's observation that World War I had "used up words." Hemingway offers a "multi-focal" photographic reality. His iceberg theory of omission is the foundation on which he builds. The syntax, which lacks subordinating conjunctions, creates static sentences. The "snapshot" style creates a collage of images. Many types of internal punctuation (colons, commas, dashes, parentheses) are omitted in favor of short declarative sentences. The sentences build on one another, like events accumulating to create a sense of the whole. Multiple strands exist in a story; an "embedded text" bridges to a different angle. He also uses other cinematic techniques, such as "cutting" quickly from one scene to the next, or "splicing" one scene into another. Intentional omissions allow the reader to fill the gap, as if responding to the author's instructions, and create three-dimensional prose.

In both his literature and his personal writing, Hemingway habitually used the word "and" in place of commas. This use of polysyndeton may serve to convey immediacy. Hemingway's polysyndetic sentence—or, in later works, his use of subordinate clauses—uses conjunctions to juxtapose startling visions and images. Benson compares them to haiku. Many of Hemingway's followers misinterpreted his lead and frowned upon all expression of emotion; Saul Bellow satirized this style by remarking, "Do you have emotions? Strangle them." However, Hemingway's intention was not to eliminate emotion, but to portray it in a more scientific way. Hemingway believed it would be easy, and pointless, to describe emotions; he sculpted collages of images in order to capture "the real thing, the sequence of motion and fact which made the emotion and which would be as valid in a year or in ten years or, with luck and if you stated it purely enough, always." This use of the image as an objective correlative is characteristic of Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, James Joyce and Proust. Hemingway's letters refer to Proust's In Search of Lost Time on several occasions over the years, and indicate that he read the book at least twice.

Themes

The popularity of Hemingway's work rests largely on its themes, which according to the scholar Frederic Svoboda are love, war, nature and loss, all very much present in his work. These are recurring themes in American literature, and they are evident in Hemingway's work. The literary critic Leslie Fiedler observes that in Hemingway's work the theme he defines as "sacred land"—the Old West—extends to include the mountains of Spain, Switzerland and Africa, as well as the rivers of Michigan. The Old West receives a symbolic nod with the inclusion of the "Hotel Montana" in The Sun Also Rises and For Whom the Bell Tolls. According to Stoltzfus and Fiedler, for Hemingway nature is a therapeutic place, a place of rebirth, and the hunter or fisherman experiences a moment of transcendence when he kills the prey. Nature is where men are without women: men fish, hunt and find redemption in nature. Although Hemingway also writes about sports, Carlos Baker believes that the emphasis is more on the athlete than on the sport, while Beegel sees the essence of Hemingway as an American naturalist, as reflected in the detailed descriptions found in "Big Two-Hearted River."

Hemingway often wrote about Americans living abroad. In Hemingway's Expatriate Nationalism, Jeffrey Herlihy describes "Hemingway's Transnational Archetype," a literary device involving characters who are "multilingual and bicultural, who have already integrated new cultural practices from the host community into their daily lives by the time the plots begin." In this sense, "foreign settings are not merely exotic or cosmopolitan; they are motivating factors in the character's action." Donald Monk comments that, for Hemingway, "expatriation is not so much a psychological as a metaphysical reality," implying that his worldview was based on that of a kind of uprooted outsider.

Fiedler believes that Hemingway inverts the American literary theme of the evil "dark woman" versus the good "light woman." Brett Ashley, the dark woman of The Sun Also Rises, is a goddess; Margot Macomber, the light woman of "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber," is a murderess. Robert Scholes acknowledges that Hemingway's early stories, such as "A Very Short Story," present "a male character favorably and a female unfavorably." According to Rena Sanderson, Hemingway's early critics praised his male-centered world of masculine pursuits, and his fiction that divided women into "castrators or love-slaves." Feminist critics attacked Hemingway as "public enemy number one," although more recent re-evaluations of his work "have given new visibility to Hemingway's female characters (and their strengths) and have revealed his sensitivity to gender issues, thus casting doubt on the old assumption that his writings were one-sidedly masculine." Nina Baym believes that Brett Ashley and Margot Macomber "are the two outstanding examples of Hemingway's 'bitch women.'"

"The world breaks individuals, and in most of them lime forms at the place of the break; but those who will not be bent, those the world kills. It kills the very good and the very gentle and the very brave without distinction. If you are none of these, it will kill you too, but in that case it will take longer."

— —Ernest Hemingway in A Farewell to Arms

The theme of women and death is evident in early narratives such as "Indian Camp." The theme of death permeates Hemingway's work. Young believes that the emphasis in "Indian Camp" was not so much on the woman giving birth, or the father who kills himself, but on Nick Adams, who witnesses these events as a child and becomes a "badly scarred and nervous young man." In "Indian Camp" Hemingway sets up the events that shape the Adams character. Young believes that "Indian Camp" holds the "master key" to "what its author was up to for some thirty-five years of his writing career." Stoltzfus considers Hemingway's work to be more complex, with a representation of the truth inherent in existentialism: if "nothingness" is embraced, then redemption is achieved at the moment of death. Those who face death with dignity and courage live an authentic life. Francis Macomber dies happy because the last hours of his life are authentic; the bullfighter in the corrida represents the pinnacle of a life lived with authenticity. In his essay The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field, Timo Müller writes that the success of Hemingway's fiction is due to the fact that his characters live an "authentic life," and that "soldiers, fishermen, boxers and backwoodsmen are among the archetypes of authenticity in modern literature."

The theme of emasculation is prevalent in Hemingway's work, above all in The Sun Also Rises. According to Fiedler, emasculation is the result of a generation of wounded soldiers, and of a generation in which women, such as Brett, gained emancipation. This also applies to the minor character Frances Clyne, Cohn's girlfriend at the beginning of the book. Her character supports the theme not only because the idea was introduced early in the novel, but also because of the impact she had on Cohn at the start of the book, even though she appears only a few times. Baker believes that Hemingway's work emphasizes the "natural" versus the "unnatural." In "An Alpine Idyll," the "unnaturalness" of skiing in the high-country snow in late spring is juxtaposed with the "unnaturalness" of the peasant who allowed his wife's dead body to linger too long in the shed during the winter. The skiers and the peasant retreat to the "natural" spring in the valley for redemption.

Some critics have characterized Hemingway's work as misogynistic and homophobic. Susan Beegel analyzed four decades of criticism of Hemingway in her essay "Critical Reception." She found that "critics interested in multiculturalism," particularly in the 1980s, simply ignored Hemingway, although some "apologetics" were written. The following analysis of The Sun Also Rises is typical of this criticism: "Hemingway never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew, not an unattractive character who happens to be a Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a Jew." During the same decade, according to Beegel, criticism was also published that investigated the "horror of homosexuality" and racism in Hemingway's fiction.

Influence and legacy

Hemingway's legacy to American literature is his style: the writers who came after him either emulated it or avoided it. After his reputation was established with the publication of The Sun Also Rises, he became the spokesman for the generation of the first postwar period, having established a style to follow. In 1933 his books were burned by the Nazis in Berlin as "a monument of modern decadence." His parents disapproved of his writing, calling it "filth." Reynolds asserts that his legacy is that "he left stories and novels so moving that some have become part of our cultural heritage." In a 2004 speech at the John F. Kennedy Library, Russell Banks declared that, like many male writers of his generation, he had been influenced by Hemingway's literary philosophy, style, and public image. Müller reports that for the public, Hemingway "has the highest degree of recognition of writers in the entire world." By contrast, in 2012 the novelist John Irving rejected most of Hemingway's work "except for a few short stories," saying that "the write-what-you-know dictum has no place in the literature of imagination." Irving also objected to the "tough-guy-offensive posture—all those recalcitrant men of the say-little type" and contrasted Hemingway's approach with that of Herman Melville, citing the latter's advice: "beware of the one who seeks to please rather than to frighten."

Statue of Hemingway by José Villa Soberón, in the bar El Floridita in Havana. On the wall is a photo of Hemingway awarding Fidel Castro the prize for the biggest fish caught in the "Hemingway Fishing Tournament" of May 1960.

Benson believes that the details of Hemingway's life became a "major means of exploitation," which resulted in a Hemingway industry. Hallengren believes that the "hard style" and the machismo must be separated from the author himself. Benson agrees, describing him as being as introverted and reserved as J. D. Salinger, although Hemingway masked his nature with bravado. Indeed, Salinger—who met Hemingway during the Second World War and maintained a correspondence with him—acknowledged Hemingway's influence. In a letter to Hemingway, Salinger states that their conversations "had given him his only minutes of hope during the whole war," and jokingly "named himself national chairman of the Hemingway Fan Clubs."

The International Imitation Hemingway Competition was created in 1977 as public recognition of his influence and to highlight the comically misguided efforts of lesser authors to imitate his style. Participants are invited to submit "one really good page of really bad Hemingway," and the winners are awarded a trip to "Harry's Bar" in Italy.

A minor planet discovered in 1978 by the astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh of the Soviet Union was named 3656 Hemingway to honor the writer.

His influence is evident in the numerous restaurants named "Hemingway" and in the proliferation of bars called "Harry's" (a nod to the bar in Across the River and into the Trees). A Hemingway furniture line, promoted by his son Jack Hemingway (Bumby), features pieces such as a "Kilimanjaro" nightstand and a "Catherine" slipcovered sofa. Montblanc offers a Hemingway fountain pen, and a line of Hemingway safari clothing was created.

Mary Hemingway created the Hemingway Foundation in 1965 and donated her husband's papers to the John F. Kennedy Library in 1970. In 1980 a group of Hemingway scholars met to assess the donated papers, later forming the Hemingway Society, which "is committed to supporting and fostering Hemingway scholarship."

Ray Bradbury wrote The Kilimanjaro Device, in which Hemingway is transported to the top of Mount Kilimanjaro. The film Wrestling Ernest Hemingway (1993), about the friendship of two retired men in a coastal town in Florida, takes its title from one of the characters (played by Richard Harris), who claims to have wrestled with Hemingway in 1930.

Descendants

Two of Hemingway's granddaughters, the sisters Mariel and Margaux Hemingway (daughters of Jack Hemingway), achieved fame as actresses in the 1970s and 1980s; Margaux was also a fashion model. On July 1, 1996, at the age of 42 and almost thirty-five years after the death of Ernest Hemingway, Margaux Hemingway committed suicide in Santa Monica, California. She became "the fifth person to commit suicide in four generations of her family."

Works

Main article: Ernest Hemingway bibliography

Short stories

• Three Stories and Ten Poems (1923; Spanish: Tres relatos y diez poemas)
• In Our Time (1925; Spanish: En nuestro tiempo)
• Men Without Women (1927; Spanish: Hombres sin mujeres)
• Winner Take Nothing (1933; Spanish: El ganador no se lleva nada)
• The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories (1938; Spanish: La quinta columna y los primeros cuarenta y nueve relatos)
• The Snows of Kilimanjaro and Other Stories (1961; Spanish: Las nieves del Kilimanjaro). A compilation of ten stories previously included in The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories.
• The Fifth Column and Four Stories of the Spanish Civil War (1969; Spanish: La quinta columna y cuatro historias de la guerra civil española)
• The Nick Adams Stories (1972; Spanish: Nick Adams)
• The Complete Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway (1987)
• Ernest Hemingway: The Collected Stories (1995)

Novels

• The Torrents of Spring (1926; Spanish: Aguas primaverales). Translator: Romero, Enrique. Barcelona: Albón.
• The Sun Also Rises (1926; Spanish: Fiesta). Translators: Mora Guarnido, José, Hausner, John E. Buenos Aires: Santiago Rueda, printed 1944.
• A Farewell to Arms (1929; Spanish: Adiós a las armas). Translator: Horta, Joaquín. Barcelona: Luis de Caralt, [1963 (Guada]).
• To Have and Have Not (1937; Spanish: Tener y no tener). Translator: Ibarzábal, Pedro. Barcelona: EDHASA, 1970.
• For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940; Spanish: Por quién doblan las campanas). Translator: Lola de Aguado. Barcelona: Planeta, 1972.
• Across the River and into the Trees (1950; Spanish: Al otro lado del río y entre los árboles). Translator: Gurrea, Manuel. Barcelona: Planeta, 1978.
• The Old Man and the Sea (1952; Spanish: El viejo y el mar). Mexico City: Selecciones, 1965.
• Islands in the Stream (1970; Spanish: Islas a la deriva). Translator: Rowe, Mary. Barcelona: Seix Barral, 1972.
• The Garden of Eden (1986; Spanish: El jardín del Edén). Translator: Girona, Pilar Giralt. Barcelona: Planeta, 1986.
• True at First Light (1999; Spanish: Al romper el alba). Translator: Corugedo, Fernando González. Barcelona: Planeta, 1999.

Other

• Death in the Afternoon (1932; Spanish: Muerte en la tarde)
• A Moveable Feast (1964; Spanish: París era una fiesta)
• The Dangerous Summer (1985; Spanish: El verano peligroso)

In popular culture

Apart from the various film adaptations of his novels and stories, Hemingway has been portrayed by the actor Clive Owen in the biopic "Hemingway & Gellhorn" (2012), directed by Philip Kaufman. This film narrates Hemingway's relationship with, and later marriage to, Martha Gellhorn, played by Nicole Kidman. The writer has also been played by Cory Stoll in Woody Allen's celebrated film "Midnight in Paris" (2011). In this film the protagonist, an American writer (Owen Wilson), manages to travel to the past and enters the artistic circles of Paris in the 1920s, where, among others, he meets Ernest Hemingway.

Later, Hemingway was played by the actor Adrian Sparks in Papa: Hemingway in Cuba (2015), directed by Bob Yari, which narrates Hemingway's life during his stay in the city of Havana, Cuba, in the late 1950s and also deals with a friendship Ernest had with the journalist Denne Bart Petitclerc. He was also portrayed by Dominic West in "Genius" (2016), directed by Michael Grandage.

In Spanish fiction, he was portrayed in an episode of "El Ministerio del Tiempo". In this case, the actor Félix Arcarazo portrayed him as a womanizer and drinker at the Sanfermines of Pamplona in episode 12 of the second season (2016).

Bibliography

• Baker, Carlos. (1969). Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 978-0-02-001690-8
• Baker, Carlos. (1972). Hemingway: The Writer as Artist. Princeton: Princeton UP. ISBN 978-0-691-01305-3
• Baker, Carlos. (1981). "Introduction" in Ernest Hemingway Selected Letters 1917–1961. New York: Scribner's. ISBN 978-0-684-16765-7
• Banks, Russell. (2004). "PEN/Hemingway Prize Speech". The Hemingway Review. Volume 24, issue 1. 53–60
• Baym, Nina. (1990). "Actually I Felt Sorry for the Lion". in Benson, Jackson J. (ed). New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway. Durham: Duke UP. ISBN 978-0-8223-1067-9
• Beegel, Susan. (1996). "Conclusion: The Critical Reputation". in Donaldson, Scott (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-45574-9
• Beegel, Susan (2000). "Eye and Heart: Hemingway's Education as a Naturalist". in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed). A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Oxford UP. ISBN 978-0-19-512152-0
• Benson, Jackson. (1989). "Ernest Hemingway: The Life as Fiction and the Fiction as Life". American Literature. Volume 61, issue 3. 354–358
• Benson, Jackson. (1975). The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway: Critical Essays. Durham: Duke UP. ISBN 978-0-8223-0320-6
• Burwell, Rose Marie. (1996). Hemingway: the Postwar Years and the Posthumous Novels. New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-48199-1
• Castillo-Puche, José Luis (1968). Hemingway, entre la vida y la muerte (in español). Ediciones Destino. ISBN 978-84-233-0058-7.
• Coté, William E. Correspondent or Warrior?: Hemingway's Murky World War II "Combat" Experience. The Hemingway Review, Volume 22, Number 1, Fall 2002. pp. 88-104 | 10.1353/hem.2002.0013
• Desnoyers, Megan Floyd. "Ernest Hemingway: A Storyteller's Legacy" Archived 2018-12-25 at the Wayback Machine. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library Online Resources. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. Retrieved November 30, 2011.
• Fernández de Castro, Álex, (2015), "La Masía, Un Miró Para Mrs Hemingway", Publicacions de la Universitat de Valencia, ISBN 978-84-370-9668-1
• Fiedler, Leslie. (1975). Love and Death in the American Novel. New York: Stein and Day. ISBN 978-0-8128-1799-7
• Gammel, Irene. (2002). Baroness Elsa: Gender, Dada, and Everyday Modernity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002. Print. ISBN 978-0-262-57215-6
• Griffin, Peter. (1985). Along with Youth: Hemingway, the Early Years. New York: Oxford UP. ISBN 978-0-19-503680-0
• Hemingway, Ernest. (1957 ed.) A Farewell to Arms. New York: Scribner's. ISBN 978-0-684-17469-3
• Hemingway, Ernest. (1975). "The Art of the Short Story" in Benson, Jackson (ed). New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway. Durham: Duke UP. ISBN 978-0-8223-1067-9
• Hemingway, Leicester. (1996). My Brother, Ernest Hemingway. New York: World Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-56164-098-0
• Herlihy, Jeffrey (2011). In Paris or Paname: Hemingway's Expatriate Nationalism. New York: Rodopi. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
• Hoberek, Andrew. (2005). Twilight of the Middle Class: Post World War II fiction and White Collar Work. New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-691-12145-1
• Izu, Miguel. (2019). Hemingway en los sanfermines. Pamplona: Ediciones Eunate. 978-84-7768-381-0
• Kert, Bernice. (1983). The Hemingway Women. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-31835-7
• Koch, Stephen. (2005). The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles. New York: Counterpoint. ISBN 978-1-58243-280-9
• Lynn, Kenneth. (1987). Hemingway. Cambridge: Harvard UP. ISBN 978-0-674-38732-4
• McCormick, John (1971). American Literature 1919–1932. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7100-7052-4
• Mellow, James. (1992). Hemingway: A Life Without Consequences. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-37777-2
• Mellow, James. (1991). Charmed Circle: Gertrude Stein and Company. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-47982-7
• Meyers, Jeffrey. (1985). Hemingway: A Biography. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-42126-0
• Miller, Linda Patterson. (2006). "From the African Book to Under Kilimanjaro". The Hemingway Review, Volume 25, issue 2. 78–81
• Mook, Donald. (1978). "Hemingway's Territorial Imperative". The Yearbook of English Studies Volume 8, issue 1. 125-140
• Müller, Timo. (2010). "The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field, 1926–1936". Journal of Modern Literature. Volume 33, issue 1. 28–42
• Nagel, James. (1996). "Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises". in Donaldson, Scott (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-45574-9
• Oliver, Charles. (1999). Ernest Hemingway A to Z: The Essential Reference to the Life and Work. New York: Checkmark Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-3467-3
• Páporov, Yuri (1993). Hemingway en Cuba (in español). México: Siglo XXI. ISBN 968-23-1848-3. Retrieved January 10, 2010.
• Pizer, Donald. (1986). "The Hemingway: Dos Passos Relationship". Journal of Modern Literature. Volume 13, issue 1. 111-128
• Reynolds, Michael (2000). "Ernest Hemingway, 1899–1961: A Brief Biography". in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed). A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Oxford UP. ISBN 978-0-19-512152-0
• Reynolds, Michael. (1999). Hemingway: The Final Years. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-32047-3
• Reynolds, Michael. (1989). Hemingway: The Paris Years. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-31879-1
• Reynolds, Michael. (1998). The Young Hemingway. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-31776-3
• Reynolds, Michael. (2000). Ernest Hemingway: A Brief Biography A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed). Oxford: Oxford UP. ISBN 978-0-19-512151-3
• Robinson, Daniel. (2005). "My True Occupation is That of a Writer:Hemingway's Passport Correspondence". The Hemingway Review. 87–93
• Trogdon, Robert W. "Forms of Combat: Hemingway, the Critics and Green Hills of Africa". The Hemingway Review. Volume 15, issue 2. 1–14
• Sanderson, Rena. (1996). "Hemingway and Gender History". in Donaldson, Scott (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-45574-9
• Scholes, Robert. (1990). "New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway". in Benson, Jackson J. Decoding Papa: 'A Very Short Story' as Work and Text. 33–47. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-1067-9
• Smith, Paul (1996). "1924: Hemingway's Luggage and the Miraculous Year". in Donaldson, Scott (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-45574-9
• Stanton, Edward F. (1989). Hemingway en España (in español). Editorial Castalia. ISBN 978-84-7039-526-0.
• Stoltzfus, Ben. (2005). "Sartre, "Nada," and Hemingway's African Stories". Comparative Literature Studies. Volume 42, issue 3. 205–228
• Svoboda, Frederic. (2000). "The Great Themes in Hemingway". in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed). A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Oxford UP. ISBN 978-0-19-512152-0
• Thomas, Hugh. (2001). The Spanish Civil War. New York: Modern Library. ISBN 978-0-375-75515-6
• Trodd, Zoe. (2007). "Hemingway's Camera Eye: The Problems of Language and an Interwar Politics of Form". The Hemingway Review. Volume 26, issue 2. 7–21
• Wells, Elizabeth J. (1975). "A Statistical Analysis of the Prose Style of Ernest Hemingway: Big Two-Hearted River". in Benson, Jackson (ed). The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway: Critical Essays. Durham NC: Duke UP. ISBN 978-0-8223-0320-6
• Young, Philip. (1964). Ernest Hemingway. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota. ISBN 978-0-8166-0191-2

External links

• Family tree showing Hemingway's parents, siblings, wives, children, and grandchildren.
• Ernest Hemingway, The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954 (in English)
• Ernest Hemingway Museum in Cuba (in Spanish)
• "Hemingway fue obligado a salir de Cuba." (in Spanish)
• Comparison of The Sun Also Rises with Henry James's Daisy Miller. (in Spanish)
• A Moveable Feast, commented on by Mario Vargas Llosa. (in Spanish)
• Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961) (in Spanish)
• Ernest Hemingway as a skier. (in Spanish)
• Hemingway on war and its aftermath.
• Vargas Llosa on Hemingway (in Spanish)
• Finca La Vigía in Havana

• The first Spanish edition of In Our Time, Hemingway's first book of short stories, translated by Rolando Costa Picazo, member of the Argentine Academy of Letters, and with a prologue by Ricardo Piglia (page 22) (in Spanish)