Ambrosio Spínola

From Hispanopedia
Ambrosio Spínola
Marquis Ambrosio Spínola, Rubens (c. 1630)
Born1569
Genoa,
Republic of Genoa
DiedSeptember 25, 1630
Castelnuovo Scrivia,
Duchy of Mantua
Military career
Allegiance Hispanic Monarchy
Branch
Infantry
Rank
Captain General
UnitSpanish Tercio
CommandsCaptain General of the Army of Flanders
Conflicts
AwardsMarquisate of los Balbases
Duchy of Sesto
Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece
Knight of the Order of Santiago
Status: Marquis
Duke

Coat of arms of the Spínola family


Ambrosio Spínola Doria (Italian: Ambrogio Spinola Doria; Genoa, 1569 - Castelnuovo Scrivia, September 25, 1630), 1st Duke of Sesto (1612), 1st Marquis of los Balbases (1621) and Grandee of Spain, was a Genoese aristocrat in the service of the Hispanic Monarchy as a Spanish general, and Captain General of Flanders during the Eighty Years' War, honored as a Knight of the Order of Santiago and of the Golden Fleece.

Spínola is remembered, among other feats, for the capture of the Dutch city of Breda (immortalized in the famous painting by Diego Velázquez, "The Surrender of Breda"), and is recognized as one of the last great military leaders of the Spanish Golden Age.

Origins

Genoa, Spínola's native city, in a painting from the late 16th century, although based on a drawing from the last years of the previous one.

Ambrosio Spínola descended from the House of Spínola, a noble and wealthy family of Genoa, settled in the republic since at least the 11th century.[1] He was the eldest son of Filippo Spinola,[2] Marquis of Sesto and Venafro, and of his wife Policena Cossino, daughter of the extremely wealthy Prince of Salerno and a member of the important House of Grimaldi.[3][4] The family had counted dukes, cardinals, senators and distinguished military men among its members.[5] Since the Middle Ages, it had been one of the leading families of the city.[6] From the 16th century, some of its members had settled in Spain.[5] Filippo and Policena had seven children: five daughters and two sons.[3] Ambrosio was the elder of these and was born on December 21, 1569.[3][6] The father died early, in 1591,[7] and the children were left in the care of their mother.[3]

On the death of his father, Ambrosio inherited, in addition to great wealth, the titles of Marquis of Benafró and of Sesto.[8] As a young man Ambrosio showed an inclination for the exact sciences and history, unlike his brother, who was more given to martial exercises.[3] While Federico took part in the wars of Flanders, Ambrosio was trained in Genoa in mathematics and military studies.[9] He lived in his native city until the age of thirty-four.[6]

In the 16th century, the Republic of Genoa was a State practically in the condition of a protectorate under the power of the Catholic Monarchy. The Genoese were the bankers of the monarchy and had almost total control of its finances. Several of Ambrosio Spínola's younger siblings sought their fortune in Spain, and one of them, Federico, distinguished himself as a soldier in Flanders.[9] The elder brother remained in Italy and married in 1592 Joanna Bacciadona (Juana Basadona),[10] daughter of the Count of Galeratta.[11] Juana, an only child, brought to the marriage a great dowry of half a million escudos.[11][note 1] The couple had five children, three sons and two daughters.[11][note 2]

Beginnings in politics

He was elected a magistrate of the republic.[13][8] The houses of Spínola and Doria vied to exercise power in the republic.[8][14] Ambrosio Spínola continued this rivalry with Juan Andrea Doria, then head of the Doria.[15][8][14] Those discontented with the great power of the Doria gathered around the Spínola, even though both families were supporters of the alliance with the Spanish.[16] At that time the Spínola had more members and greater wealth than the other three principal families of the republic, the Doria, the Grimaldi and the Fieschi.[14] In 1594, the two parties clashed over the office of doge, which was won by the candidate backed by Doria; the opposite happened in 1597.[17][18] After failing in a legal dispute with the Doria over the inheritance of a palace belonging to his grandfather,[19] he decided to withdraw from the city and improve the fortune of his house by serving the Spanish monarchy in Flanders, since the Doria monopolized the Genoese naval commands.[17][14] Weary of the constant intrigues that characterized Genoese politics and by then distrustful of the government of the republic, he left it in 1602, at the age of thirty-three.[20] On November 3, 1601, the King appointed him Maestre de Campo of the troops he was to take to Flanders.[21] In 1602 he and his brother Federico entered into negotiations with the Spanish Government; at the beginning of that year they went to Lombardy to prepare the eight thousand soldiers who were to go to Flanders.[22] In exchange for supplying the funds needed to recruit the troops that were to take part in the invasion of England, he demanded that he be given the command.[23] Ambrosio did indeed take command of one of the two tercios into which they were organized and whose levy he paid for.[22][24] He set out northward on May 2, leading the troops with strict discipline.[25] For the journey, the route chosen to reach Flanders passed through Savoy, the Franche-Comté, Lorraine and Luxembourg.[24]

The young Ambrosio Spínola, portrayed during his stay in the United Provinces to negotiate peace with the Dutch in 1609. To satisfy his military inclinations, and since his rivals the Doria monopolized the Genoese naval commands, he went to serve the Hispanic Monarchy in Flanders, where his younger brother Federico had already fought.

Federico, meanwhile, received command of nine galleys that were to form a new squadron to operate in Flanders, where they had not been used until then.[26] He lost two of them in a fight with English warships that were patrolling the Portuguese coast.[27] Another three were lost in a storm in the English Channel, after slipping away from two squadrons, one Dutch and the other English, that were watching the channel.[28] The three survivors reached Dunkirk and then moved on to La Esclusa, where they would have their base.[29] Ambrosio Spínola traveled a long distance with his army until reaching Flanders in 1602 with the men he had recruited out of his own pocket. During the first months of his stay in Flanders, the Spanish government considered the possibility of using him in an invasion of England, a project that never materialized because of the dire situation in which the Flemish provinces found themselves.[30] As a consequence of the shortage of troops, Archduke Albert preferred to use those Spínola had brought to protect himself from Dutch attacks, continue the siege of Ostend and discard the invasion project.[31] Philip III ended up giving in to this.[32] With the project of invading England abandoned, Spínola moved with his troops to Brabant, where he reinforced those commanded by the Admiral of Aragon, who was trying to protect the region from the incursions of Maurice of Nassau.[32] At the end of the year he returned to Italy to obtain more men. In 1603 he returned to Flanders at the head of new troops paid for by himself.[33] Spínola's great advantage was his ability to cover the army's expenses with his family fortune if aid from the Madrid court was lacking.[33] On May 25 his brother had died in a fight between eight of his galleys and five Dutch ships; the news, which grieved Spínola deeply and nearly led him to abandon his military career, reached him while he was still in Pavia recruiting soldiers.[34] By November he was back in Flanders, and took part in the relief of Bolduque, hard pressed by the Dutch.[34]

His real experience as a soldier did not begin until, as general, at the age of 34, he was charged with continuing the siege of Ostend in September 1603.[33] Albert, determined to erase the defeat of the Dunes by taking the important Dutch coastal enclave, gave the command to Spínola.[34] Since the setback of the Battle of Nieuwpoort in 1600, the Spanish court had been seeking a military leader to replace Archduke Albert in command of the Army of Flanders.[35] While the long siege continued, the Dutch attacked Tirlemont, laid waste to the region of Brussels and very nearly took Maastricht.[32] They also besieged La Esclusa, to whose relief Albert sent Spínola at the head of six thousand soldiers.[36] Although the town was given up for lost because of the tight siege to which the Dutch subjected it, and although the Genoese shared the opinion that it was impossible to hold it, he tried to do so, following the Archduke's orders.[36] The operation was a failure.[36] Ostend, however, fell into his hands in September 1604. Once the protracted siege was over, Spínola decided to travel to the court at Valladolid to plan the campaign of 1605.[37]

General of the Royal Spanish Armies

The Frisian campaigns and the Twelve Years' Truce

Allegorical engraving of Spínola's victories in the campaigns of 1605 and 1606, which led to the peace negotiations with the Dutch and the signing in 1609 of the Twelve Years' Truce.

In Valladolid he insisted on serving as General in chief in Flanders, which meant the transfer of all military authority from the Archduke to the Marquis.[33] Albert and his wife agreed, but the Spanish Government did not at first,[38] demanding that Spínola be given not only the military command but also the management of the military budget, and preferring at the start to appoint someone else to the post.[33][37] Once this condition was granted, the Genoese was appointed maestre de campo general of the Army of Flanders in March 1605.[33][note 3] Spínola's plans entailed a radical change in Hispanic military strategy: abandoning the defensive and taking the offensive, carrying the war into enemy territory, having the army supply itself there and levying taxes there, so that the costs of the conflict would fall on the Dutch.[39] This required the formation of a great army of some thirty thousand infantry and four thousand cavalry, which would be divided into two groups: one would try to recover La Esclusa while the other would invade Frisia after crossing the Rhine.[40]

In April he was again in Brussels and took part in his first campaign. The wars of the Low Countries consisted mainly of sieges, and Spínola became famous for the number of towns he took, despite the efforts of Maurice of Nassau to relieve them. The first engagement of the 1605 campaign was the thwarting of Nassau's attack on Antwerp.[41] Once the town had been relieved, Spínola crossed the Rhine and fortified the crossing of the great river.[41] After crossing Cleves and Westphalia, the army marched against Lingen.[41] On the way it took Oldenzaal in August.[42] At the end of the same month he took Lingen, thanks to the tight encirclement of the town and the skill of the Italian military engineers.[42] The Spanish also seized Deventer, which prevented Dutch relief of Lingen, and undertook the siege of Wachtendonk, despite the doubts of the Spanish commanders.[42] Spínola insisted on taking the place and succeeded, in addition to also conquering the castle of Krakau.[42] By contrast, the attempts to seize Bergen op Zoom in September and October failed.[42]

After the victorious campaign of 1605, he returned to the court at Valladolid to plan that of the following year.[43][44] In 1606 he returned to Spain, where he was received with great honors. He was entrusted with a secret mission consisting of securing the Governorship of Flanders in the event of the death of the Archduke or his wife.[43][45] Because of the delay of the American fleet, Spínola had to guarantee with his fortune the loans needed to finance the offensive of 1606; in gratitude, he was appointed to the Council of State and War.[43][44] Once again, the objective was to compel the Dutch to enter into peace negotiations.[43] To this end, Spínola intended to divide the army in two again: one group would cross the Ijsel and campaign in the Rhine area, and the other would do the same with the Waal to advance toward Holland.[44] He made the return to Flanders by passing first through Genoa, to attend to his family and his business affairs; these had allowed him to obtain a loan of eight hundred thousand escudos to undertake the new campaign, although Spínola calculated that he would need some three hundred thousand a month to finance it.[44] After recovering from a serious illness that caused rumors of his death to spread, he returned to Flanders, where he found that the eight hundred thousand escudos had already been spent; to undertake military operations, he had to guarantee another onerous loan of two and a quarter million escudos.[46]

Portrait of Ambrogio Spinola by Anthony van Dyck

Once the funds had been obtained, the campaign began, with bad weather and bad luck for Hispanic arms: Bucquoy was unable to cross the Waal, and Spínola's army was likewise unable to cross the Ijsel because of the presence of the enemy army on the other bank.[47] The Genoese then decided to change the campaign plan and besiege Grol, a well-protected town which nonetheless capitulated on August 5.[48] He then marched against Rheinberg, a town that had just been fortified during the winter by Nassau, which protected the Dutch positions in Frisia and dominated river traffic on the Rhine.[49] Nassau managed to send reinforcements to the besieged, who defended themselves fiercely.[49] The relief army that tried to surprise the besiegers, however, failed in its mission.[49] Finally Spínola conquered the town after a month of siege.[49] He then had to face the mutiny of part of his soldiers, who had not received their pay because part of the money from the campaign loan had not arrived.[49] The mutineers marched toward Breda, leaving Lochem, which Nassau easily recovered, and Grol without garrisons.[49] Despite the difficult situation—scarce funds, demoralized troops and bad weather—Spínola went to defend the latter and succeeded in making the enemy withdraw.[50] At the end of the campaign, and owing to a new lack of money, another three thousand soldiers rebelled.[50] Once more Spínola had to act as guarantor to obtain a new loan to pay the arrears to the mutineers, whom he immediately expelled from the army and from Flanders.[50]

At the end of 1606, the long negotiations between the Dutch and the Spanish began. Spínola expressed the advisability of coming to terms with the enemy if the funds—some three hundred thousand escudos a month—to finance the following year's campaign could not be obtained.[51] The Archdukes wished to achieve peace or, failing that, at least a truce; for Spínola, this was also the best option if there were no funds to sustain new campaigns.[51] The first agreement with the Dutch was signed as early as March 1607: each side would keep the territories it controlled, fighting would cease for eight months, and negotiations would be opened between delegates of the two sides.[52] Spínola was one of these, and in that capacity took part in the long dealings with the Dutch that took place in The Hague and concluded with the signing of the truce in 1609.[53]

He was unable to obtain the rank of "grandee" that he desired, and was forced to pledge the whole of his fortune as security for the costs of the war before the bankers would advance funds to the Spanish Crown. Since that money was never repaid to him, he was left completely ruined. The Spanish Government then began to resort to excuses to keep him away from Spain.

Until the signing of the Twelve Years' Truce in 1609, he continued in command in the field, generally with success. After its signing he remained at his post, and was charged, among other tasks, with conducting the negotiations with France when the Prince of Condé fled to Flanders with his wife, Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency, to put her beyond the reach of the senile admiration of Henry IV of France.

Truce and war in Germany

Flag of the Tercio of Spínola around 1621.

In March 1611, after obtaining the King's permission, he traveled to Genoa, from where he then went on to Madrid.[54] At court he was made a Grandee of Spain.[54] There he also dealt with the secret Dutch proposal to submit to the protectorate of the Crown in exchange for the signing of a perpetual peace.[54]

Spínola then crossed France, where he was received by King Louis XIII and his mother, the Queen Regent Marie de' Medici, with whom a double royal wedding had been agreed.[55] He then went to Prague, to congratulate the new Emperor Matthias.[56] In Prague he dealt with the claims of the princes of Brandenburg and Neuburg to the Duchy of Cleves, in whose succession conflict he would soon take part.[56] Back in Brussels, the King charged him with trying to ensure that the Flemish provinces swore allegiance to him before the death of the Archduke.[57]

In 1614 he took part in the operations related to the inheritance of Cleves and Jülich, a conflict in which the Dutch also took part.[58] Because of this, he spent his time between Brussels and the general headquarters of operations at Wessel, which he conquered during the campaign.[59] At the end of August, he laid siege to the City of Aachen, which he occupied after two days of siege.[58] After seizing a large part of the Duchy of Jülich without stopping to take the capital, he conquered Wessel at the beginning of September.[58] The Dutch, for their part, positioned themselves in Jülich and in other towns of the region.[58] In January 1615 he received the news of the death of his wife, which temporarily plunged him into great distress.[59] To cope with the grief of the loss, he withdrew to an abbey.[59]

When the Thirty Years' War broke out he led a vigorous campaign in the Lower Palatinate, part of whose territory he conquered (1620), and he was rewarded with the rank of Captain General.

Resumption of the war with the United Provinces

When the time approached to extend the truce with the United Provinces or to take up arms again, Spínola spoke in favor of peace, as did Archduke Albert.[60] Philip III of Spain decided to return to war, an opinion shared by his son and heir Philip IV, despite the lack of funds to resume military operations.[61] Spínola was sent to invade the Palatinate, though without being granted the rank of Captain General that he longed for and without receiving any financial aid, which he requested owing to his battered situation.[62] Despite the maneuvers of the Dutch, with whom the truce was still theoretically in force, Spínola succeeded during the campaign of 1620 in seizing the Lower Palatinate and the Upper Palatinate.[63] His theoretical mission was to ensure the expulsion of Frederick from the territory, in accordance with the Emperor's decision.[63] In April 1621 he signed a truce with the Protestants of the Evangelical Union and returned to the Low Countries, in anticipation of the resumption of the war with the Dutch when the truce of 1609 expired.[63]

Spínola's victories
Two of Spínola's principal victories in the 1620s, depicted in paintings for the Hall of Realms: The Surrender of Jülich (1622) and The Surrender of Breda (1625). The first he won in the campaigns in Germany and the second in the war against the United Provinces.

On December 7, 1621, he was granted the title of Marquis of los Balbases.[64] Despite the honor, this did not mean that the King listened to his opinions about what should be done both in the Palatinate and in the Low Countries.[64] Philip IV had chosen to resume the war with the Dutch instead of renewing the truce of 1609.[64] Spínola returned to Brussels to take charge of reorganizing the army and preparing it for the imminent start of hostilities.[64] Once again short of funds, he had problems ensuring the payment of the soldiers and the rest of the military expenses.[65] In 1622, he sent troops to the Duchy of Cleves and occupied the neighboring Duchy of Jülich.[66] Attempts to end the fighting through negotiation in Brussels failed because of the reluctance of Frederick V of the Palatinate to come to terms with his enemies.[66] The dealings with James of England and the Emperor did not lead to peace either.[67] In June Spínola overran the lands of the Prince of Darmstadt.[67] He then tried in vain to seize the Dutch city of Bergen op Zoom with the help of a traitor who was to open the gates to them.[67]

Siege of Breda, from an engraving of the period. The capture of the strategic town was a great triumph for the Genoese after the protracted siege, but it exhausted the royal coffers.

Next, he obtained the most renowned victory of his career, the capture of Breda, after a long siege of the city that lasted nine months (August 1624-June 1625), and which succeeded despite all the efforts of the Prince of Orange, Maurice, to save it.[68] The capture, extremely costly, exhausted the royal treasury and was carried out at Spínola's insistence, despite the opposition of most of his officers and the doubts of the Council of State.[68] The conquest of the city impelled Maurice to request peace talks, and King Philip IV to grant the Genoese the office of Comendador of Castile.[69] The post, however, brought no financial advantage for twelve years, which was what Spínola most needed to try to restore his finances, badly battered in the royal service.[69]

The capture of Breda was the culmination of Spínola's career. However, the paralysis of the government of Spain, the pressing need for money and the new favorite, Olivares, jealous of the general, allowed the Dutch to recover. Spínola could not prevent Frederick Henry of Nassau from occupying Groenlo, a good outpost toward Breda. In February 1628 he returned to Spain, passing through France and visiting on the way Louis XIII and Richelieu at the Siege of La Rochelle,[70] determined not to resume command in Flanders unless he was assured of funds to maintain his army. In Madrid he had to endure the insolence of Olivares, who did his utmost to make him responsible for the loss of Groll. Spínola decided not to return to Flanders. At that time Spínola was in favor of signing peace in Flanders and of not intervening in the succession of the Duchy of Mantua, whose lord had died at the end of December of the previous year.[70]

When the War of the Mantuan Succession broke out, the government of Spain appointed Spinola Governor of the Duchy of Milan. He landed in Genoa in September 1629. In Italy he suffered the effects of the enmity of Olivares, who caused him to be stripped of his powers as plenipotentiary. Spinola's health collapsed, and having had his money expropriated, been denied the compensation he had claimed for his children and been allowed to fall into disgrace in the presence of the enemy, he died on September 25, 1630, at the siege of Casale. His last words murmured "honor" and "reputation".[71]

He is buried in the Spínola Palace at Casalnoceto, in the countryside between Genoa and Milan.[72]

Family

Son of Filippo Spinola, Marquis of Venafro and of Sesto, and of Polissena Grimaldi, Baroness of Casalnuovo. In 1592 he married Giovanna Bacciadonne, and their children were: Filippo Spinola (1596-1659), Polissena Spínola (d. 1639) and Agostino Spínola (1597-1649). In his second marriage he wed, in 1615, Marie de Lorraine-Aumale, daughter of Charles de Lorraine-Aumale, Duke of Aumale (1555-1631) and Marie de Lorraine-Elbeuf (1555-1603).

In fiction

Ambrosio Spínola appears in the television series El Ministerio del Tiempo, played by Ramón Langa. In the series, Spinola works for the Spanish Government as head of military operations of the Ministry of Time, combining this work with his campaigns in Flanders.

Notes

  1. ↑ Fifty thousand, according to Retortillo Atienza.[12]
  2. ↑ The eldest was named Felipe, born in 1594. The second, Agustín, in 1597. They were followed by Juan Jacobo, who died in infancy, Policena and María.[11][7]
  3. ↑ According to Benavides, in May.[38]

References

  1. ↑ Rodríguez Villa 1904, p. 11.
  2. ↑ Retortillo Atienza 2016, pp. 30, 51.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Rodríguez Villa 1904, p. 13.
  4. ↑ Retortillo Atienza 2016, pp. 48, 51.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Rodríguez Villa 1904, p. 12.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Retortillo Atienza 2016, p. 30.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Retortillo Atienza 2016, p. 51.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Retortillo Atienza 2016, p. 55.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Rodríguez Villa 1904, p. 14.
  10. ↑ Retortillo Atienza 2016, pp. 48, 53.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Rodríguez Villa 1904, p. 16.
  12. ↑ Retortillo Atienza 2016, p. 53.
  13. ↑ Rodríguez Villa 1904, p. 17.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Benavides 2018, p. 12.
  15. ↑ Rodríguez Villa 1904, pp. 17–18.
  16. ↑ Retortillo Atienza 2016, p. 56.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Rodríguez Villa 1904, p. 18.
  18. ↑ Retortillo Atienza 2016, pp. 56–57.
  19. ↑ Retortillo Atienza 2016, pp. 57–58.
  20. ↑ Retortillo Atienza 2016, p. 50.
  21. ↑ Retortillo Atienza 2016, p. 73.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Rodríguez Villa 1904, p. 32.
  23. ↑ Benavides 2018, p. 34.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Retortillo Atienza 2016, p. 75.
  25. ↑ Rodríguez Villa 1904, p. 33.
  26. ↑ Rodríguez Villa 1904, pp. 23–35.
  27. ↑ Rodríguez Villa 1904, p. 35.
  28. ↑ Rodríguez Villa 1904, pp. 36–37.
  29. ↑ Rodríguez Villa 1904, p. 37.
  30. ↑ Rodríguez Villa 1904, p. 52.
  31. ↑ Benavides 2018, pp. 34–35.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Benavides 2018, p. 35.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 33.5 De Mesa Gallego 2009, p. 44.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 Benavides 2018, p. 37.
  35. ↑ Benavides 2018, p. 24.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Benavides 2018, p. 45.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Benavides 2018, p. 55.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Benavides 2018, p. 57.
  39. ↑ Benavides 2018, pp. 55–56.
  40. ↑ Benavides 2018, p. 56.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Benavides 2018, p. 60.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 42.3 42.4 Benavides 2018, p. 61.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 De Mesa Gallego 2009, p. 99.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 Benavides 2018, p. 63.
  45. ↑ Retortillo Atienza 2016, p. 11.
  46. ↑ Benavides 2018, pp. 63, 69.
  47. ↑ Benavides 2018, p. 69.
  48. ↑ Benavides 2018, pp. 69–70.
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 49.2 49.3 49.4 49.5 Benavides 2018, p. 70.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 Benavides 2018, p. 71.
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Benavides 2018, p. 74.
  52. ↑ Benavides 2018, p. 75.
  53. ↑ Benavides 2018, p. 95.
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 Benavides 2018, p. 144.
  55. ↑ Benavides 2018, pp. 146–147.
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Benavides 2018, p. 147.
  57. ↑ Benavides 2018, pp. 154–155.
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 58.3 Benavides 2018, p. 171.
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 Benavides 2018, p. 159.
  60. ↑ Benavides 2018, p. 180.
  61. ↑ Benavides 2018, pp. 189–190.
  62. ↑ Benavides 2018, p. 194.
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 63.2 Benavides 2018, p. 197.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 64.3 Benavides 2018, p. 205.
  65. ↑ Benavides 2018, p. 206.
  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 Benavides 2018, p. 207.
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 67.2 Benavides 2018, p. 209.
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 Benavides 2018, p. 217.
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 Benavides 2018, p. 219.
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 Stradling 1990, p. 776.
  71. ↑ Hannay, David (1911). "Spinola, Ambrose" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 686–687. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Unknown parameter |inline= ignored (help)
  72. ↑ Retortillo Atienza 2016, p. 25.

Bibliography

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