Toledo School of Translators

From Hispanopedia
Toledo School of Translators
The Cathedral of Toledo became a translation center in the 12th century
TypeInformal translation school
Founded12th century
Dissolved13th century
SeatToledo, Spain
ScopeSpain and Europe
ObjectivesTranslation of philosophical, scientific and religious works

The Toledo School of Translators was made up of a group of scholars, academics and translators who collaborated in the city of Toledo during the 12th and 13th centuries in order to render, mainly into Latin and Castilian, numerous philosophical, scientific and religious works from Classical Arabic, Ancient Greek and Hebrew.[1] This activity, fostered in a context of coexistence among Christians, Muslims and Jews, facilitated the transmission of classical and Eastern knowledge to medieval Europe, contributing to the intellectual renaissance of the Christian West.[2][3]

The school went through two main stages, separated by a transition period. The first, promoted by Archbishop Raymond of Toledo in the 12th century, focused on the translation of philosophical and religious texts, fundamentally from Arabic into Latin, with the participation of translators such as Dominicus Gundissalinus and John of Seville.[4]

In the second phase, under the reign of Alfonso X of Castile in the 13th century, the translators broadened their work by incorporating revised Castilian as a target language. Alfonso X, known as the Wise, acted as a prominent patron by directly sponsoring this activity, selecting translators, organizing work teams and personally participating in the revision of the works, which gave the school an institutional character and integrated it into his program of cultural governance.

This initiative not only promoted the spread of knowledge in the kingdom, but also laid the foundations for the standardization and development of the modern Spanish language, by promoting the use of Castilian as an official and learned language and expanding its lexicon and syntactic flexibility, although its protagonists were not fully aware of the magnitude of this linguistic process at the time.[4][5][6][7][8]

History

Context

Traditionally, Toledo was a center of multilingual culture and had previously acquired great importance as a center of learning and translation. There one could find numerous classical works by ancient philosophers and scientists that had been translated into Arabic during the "Islamic Golden Age", such as those of the school of Neoplatonism, Aristotle, Hippocrates, Galen, Ptolemy, etc., as well as the works of ancient philosophers and scientists from places as distant as Persia, India or China.[9]

In this way it was possible to learn in Toledo about many of the ancient classical disciplines that were generally inaccessible to many Christian areas of Western Europe, along with the works of Arabic-speaking scientists in the eastern Muslim lands such as Ibn Sina, al-Kindi, al-Razi and others, who had added significant works to that ancient current of thought.

Part of Arabic literature was also translated into Latin, Hebrew and Ladino, such as the works of the Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides, the Muslim sociologist and historian Ibn Khaldun, the Carthage citizen Constantine the African, or the Persian Al-Khwarizmi.[10]

The multicultural richness of Toledo at that time was one of the main reasons why numerous European scholars traveled to study there. But the translation efforts were not methodically organized until Toledo was reconquered by Christian forces in 1085.[11] The new rulers inherited vast libraries containing much of the leading scientific and philosophical thought at the forefront of the scientific discourse of the time, which could be translated thanks largely to the large community of Arabic-speaking Christians (known as Mozarabs) who were available to work on the translations.

Another reason for Spain's importance at that time was that Christian leaders in many other parts of Europe considered many scientific and theological subjects studied by the ancient classics, and developed by Arabic-speaking philosophers and scientists, to be heretical. The Condemnations of 1210–1277 at the medieval University of Paris, for example, were enacted to restrict the teaching of various theological works, among which were the physical treatises of Aristotle[12] and the works of Averroes (the Latinized name of the Muslim philosopher-physician of al-Andalus, Ibn Rushd).[13]

Beginnings

Raymond of Toledo, Archbishop of Toledo from 1126 to 1151, promoted the first translation activities in the library of the Cathedral of Toledo, where he led a team of translators that included Mozarabs of Toledo, Jewish scholars, Madrasa teachers and monks of the Order of Cluny. They translated many works, generally from Arabic into Castilian, and then from Castilian into Latin, since it was the official language of the church. In some cases, the translator could work directly from Arabic into Latin or Greek. The work of these scholars made available very important texts by Arab and Hebrew philosophers, whom the Archbishop considered indispensable for the understanding of various classical authors, especially Aristotle.[14] As a result, the cathedral library, which had been remodeled under Raymond's orders, became a translation center of a scale and importance never before known in the history of Western culture.[15]

Treatise on Medicine by Al-Razi translated by Gerard of Cremona, during the second half of the 13th century.

Gerard of Cremona was the most productive Toledo translator of the period, translating more than 87 books of Arabic science.[16] He arrived in Toledo in 1167 in search of Ptolemy's "Almagest", and since he did not know Arabic, he had to rely on Jews and Mozarabs for translation and teaching.

Among the books he translated are the following:

He edited for Latin readers the Toledan Tables, the most precise compilation of astronomy and astrology with data (ephemerides) ever seen in Europe up to that time, based in part on the work of al-Zarqali, and the works of Jabir ibn Aflah, the Banu Musa brothers, Abu Kamil, Abu al-Qasim and Ibn al-Haytham (including the Book of Optics).

Illustration of medieval Muslim surgical instruments of the physician Abulcasis (from the medical encyclopedia Kitab al-Tasrif translated as Chirurgia).

Other medical works he translated include the following:

Another very important translator was John of Seville. During the early days of the school, he was, together with Dominicus Gundissalinus, the main translator from Arabic into Castilian. John of Seville translated the Secretum Secretorum, a 10th-century Arabic encyclopedic treatise on a wide range of subjects, including art, ethics, physiognomy, astrology, alchemy, magic and medicine, which was very influential in Europe during the High Middle Ages. He also translated many treatises on astrology by al-Fargani, Abu Mashar,[19] al-Kindi, Ahmad ibn Yusuf, al-Battani, Thabit ibn Qurra, al-Qabisi, etc. In philosophy he produced Latin translations of Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Costa ben Luca's De differentia spiritus et animae, Al-Farabi, Ibn Gabirol (Avicebron), Al-Ghazali, etc. In general he is known for his intelligent syntheses, combined with his own observations and interpretations, particularly in astrology.

Rudolf of Bruges, a Flemish astronomer and translator from Arabic into Latin,[20] was a student of Hermann of Carinthia. He translated into Latin the Liber de compositione astrolabii, an important work of Islamic science on the astrolabe, by Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti,[20] which he dedicated to his fellow translator John of Seville.

Dominicus Gundissalinus is considered the first appointed director of the Toledo School of Translators, starting in 1180.[21] At first, Gundissalinus only translated from Greek into Latin or Castilian, since he did not have sufficient knowledge of Arabic, and he depended on John of Seville for all translations in that language. Later in his career, Gundissalinus mastered Arabic well enough to translate it himself. Unlike his colleagues, he focused exclusively on philosophy, translating Greek and Arabic works and the commentaries of earlier Muslim philosophers of the peninsula. Among his important translations is the Fons Vitæ (Meqor Hahayim), by the Jewish philosopher Ibn Gabirol. At one time it was thought to be the work of the Christian scholastic Avicebron. Gundissalinus also translated several works by the leading Muslim philosophers Avicenna and al-Ghazâlî. He is known for frequently removing passages and adding his own commentaries, instead of being scrupulously faithful to the originals.

Michael Scot, a Scotsman who studied at the University of Oxford and in Paris before settling in Toledo, also worked as a translator during this period.[22] He translated Aristotle's works on homocentric spheres, "De verification motuum coelestium", later used by Roger Bacon, and "Historia animalium", 19 books, dated October 21, 1220. He also translated the works of al-Betrugi (Alpetragius) in 1217, "On the Motions of the Heavens", and the influential commentaries of Averroes on the scientific works of Aristotle,[23] among many others.

Herman "the German" (Hermannus Alemannus) was Bishop of Astorga (1266-1272).[24] He was a personal friend of Manfred of Sicily. His place of birth is unknown, but he is known to have been an important figure in the intellectual life of Castile before being appointed Bishop. He is credited with the translation of the Nicomachean Ethics, by Aristotle in 1240, the Rhetoric by Averroes, The Book of Psalms and The Glosses (Commentaries) of Alfarabi on Aristotle's Rhetoric. Herman also wrote his own philosophical commentary and summary of the Ethics of Nicholas.[25]

Transition period

During the decades following the death of Archbishop Raymond, translation activity in Toledo declined considerably, although it continued into the following century and overlapped with the School of Translators of Alfonso. At least one translator, Hermannus Alemannus, is known to have worked in both schools; he translated the Old Testament during the second period. This transition period was when the first direct translations from Arabic into vernacular Castilian were made.

Mark of Toledo, a Spanish physician and Canon of Toledo, translated the Qur'an and several medical works[26] such as the Liber isagogarum by Hunayn ibn Ishaq, De aere aquis locis by Hippocrates; and Hunayn Ibn Ishaq's versions of four treatises by Galen: "De tactu pulsus", "De utilitate pulsus", "Se motu membrorum", and "De motibus liquidis". He also translated "Isagoge ad Tegni Galieni" by Hunayn Ibn Ishaq, a series of Muslim religious treatises, dated 1213, and a Greek treatise on biology.

Alfred of Sareshel (also known as Alfredus Anglicus and in Spanish texts as Alfredo el inglés or Alfredo el filósofo) was an English translator and philosopher who resided in Spain toward the end of the 12th century. He translated the pseudo-Aristotelian De plantis, and the part on alchemy, Avicennae Mineralia, of the Sifa of Ibn Sina.

John of Toledo attended the school to study medical works before returning to England and being ordained a cardinal. He later traveled to Rome, where he became personal physician to the Pope. He is believed to have translated into Latin several medical treatises related to practical medicine.[27]

Hermannus Alemannus worked in Toledo between 1240-1256. Although in the service of Manfred (Naples) from 1258-1266, he returned to Spain, where he became a naturalized citizen of the Kingdom of Castile. He translated most of Aristotle's Rhetoric, interspersed with portions of Averroes' middle commentary and short fragments of Avicenna and Alfarabi; Aristotle's Aethica Nichomachea; Averroes' middle commentary on the Poetics, Commentario Medio y Poética and Aristotle's Rhetoric; he translated the Psalter from the Hebrew text into Castilian, and translated from Arabic into Castilian an epitome of the "Ethics" known as the "Summa Alexandrinorum".

Alfonso X and the establishment of the school

Miniature from the Cantigas de Santa Maria showing Alfonso X the Wise dictating.

Under King Alfonso X of Castile (known as the Wise), Toledo grew even further in importance as a center of translation, as well as for the writing of original academic works.

The King personally supported the team of scholars and translators, who shared their communal knowledge and taught newcomers new languages and translation methods, since several people were usually involved in the same translation. The Castilian Crown paid for most of their work, and sometimes even hired the most capable translators from other parts of Spain and Europe and paid for their travel to join the school in Toledo.[28]

King Alfonso's decision to exchange Latin as the target language for translations and to favor a revised vernacular version of Castilian had very significant consequences for the development of the first foundations of the Spanish language. By insisting that the translated texts be "llanos de entender" ("easy to understand"),[29] he ensured that the texts would reach a much wider audience, both within Spain and in other European countries. Scholars from countries such as Italy, Germany, England or the Netherlands, who had moved to Toledo to translate medical, religious, classical and philosophical texts, returned to their countries with a command of Castilian, along with the knowledge acquired from Classical Arabic, Classical Greek and Ancient Hebrew.

The Calila e Dimna manuscript.

The King also commissioned the translation into Castilian of various "Eastern" fables and tales which, although written in Arabic, had originally been written in Sanskrit, such as the Kalila wa-Dimna derived from the Panchatantra (translated into Castilian as Calila e Dimna when Alfonso the Wise was still an infante). The Sendebar, also called Libro de los engaños (owing to its full title, Libro de los engaños e los asayamientos de las mujeres), which gathers a collection of Arabic tales that in turn derive from the Persian or Hindu storytelling tradition, was translated in 1253 at the initiative of Fadrique, brother of Alfonso X the Wise.

Translation methods also evolved under the direction of Alfonso X. Previously, a native speaker verbally communicated the content of the books to a scholar, who dictated its Latin equivalent to a scribe, who wrote down the translated text. Under the new methodology, a translator with experience in several languages dictated from the base language, translating into Castilian for the scribe, who wrote the Castilian version. The scribe's work was then reviewed by one or several editors. Among those editors was the King himself, who had a great interest in various disciplines, such as science, history, law and literature. He himself effectively selected each of the translators, and reviewed some of their works, always encouraging intellectual debate.

Under Alfonso's leadership, Sephardic Jewish scientists and translators acquired a prominent role in the School. The King valued them highly for their intellectual abilities and their command of the two languages most used in the translations: Arabic and Castilian.[30] The King kept some of these Jewish scholars as his personal physicians, and recognized their services with splendid favors and praise.[31] Alfonso's nephew, Juan Manuel, wrote that the King was so impressed with the intellectual level of the Jewish scholars that he entrusted them with the translation of the Talmud, the law of the Jews, as well as the Kabbalah, although by doing so he sought to demonstrate that these texts were merely a reflection of Christian doctrine, and that the Jews erred and put their souls in danger by not recognizing that fact.[32] These translations are believed lost, although it is speculated that they may have been the basis for the later development of the Christian Kabbalah.

An illustrated page from the "Lapidario".

The first known translation of this period, the "Lapidario", a book on the medicinal properties of various rocks and gems, was made by Yehuda ben Moshe Cohen with the help of Garci Pérez, when Alfonso was still an infante. Alfonso obtained the book from a Jew who had kept it hidden, and ordered Yehuda to translate it from Arabic into Castilian.[33]

Yehuda ben Moshe was one of the most notable Jewish translators during this period and also worked as the King's physician, even before Alfonso was crowned. Among his most notable translations besides the Lapidario are the Picatrix, a work composed of ancient treatises on magic and astrology, and the Tratado de la açafeha, which was translated into Latin from an Arabic text by Al-Zarqali with the help of Guillelmus Anglicus. He also produced the Tetrabiblon or Quatriparito (Ptolemy), 15 treatises on astrology (the effects of the stars on man and the properties of 360 stones with which to protect oneself from negative astral influences), and Los IIII libros de las estrellas de la ochaua espera, which King Alfonso later ordered to be revised by Samuel ha-Levi, John of Messina and John of Cremona. He also contributed to the translation of another book on judicial astrology, the "Libro conplido en los iudizios de las estrellas", which, ironically, was translated from Latin (as used among the Visigoths) into Arabic, and then again from Arabic into Castilian and Latin.[34]

The Alfonsine Tables

Yehuda ben Moshe also collaborated on the translation of the "Libro de las cruces", the "Libros del sable de Astronomía" and the famous Alfonsine Tables, compiled by Isaac ibn Sid, which provided data for calculating the position of the Sun, the Moon and the planets in relation to the fixed stars, based on observations by astronomers whom Alfonso had gathered in Toledo.[35] Among them were Aben Raghel and Alquibicio and Aben Musio and Mohamat, of Seville; Joseph Aben Alí and Jacobo; Abenvena, of Córdoba; and fifty more astronomers whom he brought from Gascony and Paris, attracted by large salaries, and to whom he also assigned the translation of Ptolemy's Cuadripartito and the gathering of books by Montesan and Algazel.[36] As a result of their work, the Luminescent Tables became the most popular astronomical tables in Europe, with updated versions reprinted regularly for more than three hundred years. Copernicus, for example, owned a copy of them.

Juan de Aspa assisted Yehuda ben Moses Cohen in the literal translation of the "Libro de la alcora" and the "Libro de las cruzes", while Guillén Arremón de Aspa collaborated with Yehuda on the translation of the IIII libros de las estrellas de la ochaua espera.

Isaac ibn Sid was another famous Jewish translator favored by the King; he was highly skilled in astronomy, astrology, architecture and mathematics. Under the King's direction, he produced a translation of the "Libro de las armellas" that was simple and easy to understand, so that "any man could use it easily". He also translated several scientific treatises, such as the Libro del astrolabio redondo or the Libro del ataçir, a book on the flat astrolabe (for quick calculations of the movement of the stars), typically used by astrologers. King Alfonso wrote a preface to Isaac ibn Sid's translation, Lamina Universal, explaining that the original work in Arabic was done in Toledo and that from there Arzarquiel made his açafea. Isaac ibn Sid also contributed to the translation Libro de quadrante pora rectificar: four works on the making of clocks, including the Libro del relogio dell argen uiuo and the Libro del relogio del palacio de las oras, the latter of which included designs for a palace with windows placed so that the light entering throughout the day would indicate the hour in an inner courtyard.

Rabbi Zag Sujurmenza is credited with the translation from Arabic of the Astrolabio redondo (spherical astrolabe), Astrolabio llano (flat astrolabe), Constelaciones (constellations) and Lámina Universal (an instrument that improved upon the astrolabe). Of his works, the most important are those of the "spherical astrolabe" and the "flat astrolabe". He also contributed to the translations of the Armellas de Ptolemy, Piedra de la sombra (shadow stone or sundial), Relox de agua (clepsydra or water clock), Argente vivo o azogue (mercury or quicksilver) and Candela (candle clock).

Abraham of Toledo, physician to Alfonso and his son Sancho, translated several books from Arabic into Spanish (Castilian), such as Al-Heitham's treatise on the construction of the universe, and the Astrolabio of al-Zarqālī. Others included Samuel ha-Levi, who translated the Libro del saber; Abulafia of Toledo, who was an author, compiler and translator; and Abraham Alfaqui, Ḥayyim Israel or Judah Cohen. Maestre Bernardo, an Islamic convert, assisted Abraham Alfaqui in the revision of the "Libro de la açafeha", which had first been translated by a team led by Maestre Ferrando de Toledo, of the same school.

Among the Christian translators of this period was Álvaro de Oviedo, who translated the "Libro Conplido" ("De judiciis Astrologiae"). Álvaro made the Latin translation while Yehuda ben Moshe gave him an oral translation into Spanish (Castilian) of the Arabic treatise of Aben Ragel. This is the only documented case of a double simultaneous translation.

The Italian Edigio de Tebladis of Parma translated into Latin Ptolemy's "Quatripartito" and Jehudas' Spanish (Castilian) version of the "Liber de Judiciis Astrologiae" by Ibn Aben Ragel (Libro conplido en los iudizios de las estrellas).

Maestre Juan de Cremona, who was the King's notary, translated parts of the "Libro de las estrellas fixas" and worked with Yehuda, Samuel ha-Levi and his fellow Italian Juan de Mesina on the "IIII Libros". Another scribe and clerk of the King, Bonaventura of Siena, translated Abraham's Spanish (Castilian) translation of the "Escala de Mohama" into French ("Livre de leschiele Mahomet").

Legacy

After Alfonso's death, Sancho IV of Castile, his self-proclaimed successor, dismantled most of the team of translators, and soon most of its members transferred their efforts to other activities under new patronage; many of them left the City of Toledo.

However, the legacy of those translations continued for centuries. The works on different sciences, such as astronomy, astrology, algebra, medicine, etc., which had acted as a magnet for numerous scholars from all over Europe who came to Toledo eager to learn firsthand the contents of all those books that had been beyond the reach of Europeans for many centuries, were translated and made accessible to the most important European academic centers. Thanks to the Castilian Crown and to this group of scholars and writers, the knowledge acquired from texts in Arabic, Greek and Hebrew reached the heart of the universities in Europe. Although the works of Aristotle and the Arab philosophers had been banned in some European centers of learning, such as at the University of Paris in the early 1200s,[37] the Toledo translations were indeed accepted, once their physical and cosmological nature could be thoroughly understood.

Albertus Magnus based his systematization of Aristotelian philosophy and much of his writings on astronomy, astrology, mineralogy, chemistry, zoology, physiology and phrenology on those translations made in Toledo.[38] His student, Thomas Aquinas, also used many of the translated works to include Aristotle in his philosophical and theological treatises.

Roger Bacon relied on many of the translations from Arabic to make important contributions in the fields of optics, astronomy, natural sciences, chemistry and mathematics. Many other scholars of the Renaissance period used the translation of the Kitab al-manazir by ibn al-Haitham, which was the most important treatise on optics of ancient and medieval times.[39] In general, most of the disciplines in the field of medicine in Europe benefited enormously from the translations made of works that reflected the advanced state of medicine in medieval Islam and some Asian countries.[40]

Nicolaus Copernicus, the first scientist to formulate a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology, which placed the sun instead of the earth at the center of the universe, studied the translation of the astronomical work Almagest by Ptolemy. He also used the data contained in the Alfonsine Tables, of which he owned a copy after they were published in Venice in 1515, for astronomical computation.[41] This work was the pioneer in a long series of efforts by European astronomers to attempt the calculation of precise tables of astrological predictions.[42] They became the most popular astronomical tables in Europe, and updated versions were produced regularly for three hundred years. Other translated works of an astronomical nature, such as "Theorica planetarum", were used as an introductory text in astronomy by European students throughout the 15th century.[43]

Another side effect of this linguistic enterprise was the promotion of a revised version of the Castilian language which, while incorporating a large amount of scientific and technical vocabulary, had simplified its syntax so that people from all walks of life could understand it and in this way it could reach the masses, without detriment to the preservation of expressions suitable for higher thought. The contributions of all these scholars, both oral and written, under the tutelage and direction of Alfonso X, established the foundations of the modern supranational Spanish language.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Navarro García, Llanos (August 31, 2010). "La Escuela de Traductores de Toledo" (in español). Centro Virtual Cervantes. Retrieved January 10, 2026.
  2. ↑ González, Daniel H. (2002). "Escuela de Traductores de Toledo" (PDF) (in español). Redalyc. Retrieved January 10, 2026.
  3. ↑ Benito Ruano, Eloy (2000). "Ámbito y ambiente de la «Escuela de Traductores de Toledo»" (in español). Revistas UNED. Retrieved January 10, 2026.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 González, Daniel H. (2002). "Escuela de Traductores de Toledo" (PDF) (in español). Redalyc. Retrieved January 10, 2026.
  5. ↑ "Antigua Escuela de Traductores de Toledo: Introducción" (in español). Fundación Ignacio Larramendi. Retrieved January 10, 2026.
  6. ↑ "Alfonso X el Sabio en la historia del español" (in español). Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. Retrieved January 10, 2026.
  7. ↑ Julio Samsó (February 11, 2022). "La Escuela de Traductores de Toledo: ¿mito o realidad?" (in español). Al-Andalus y la Historia. Retrieved January 10, 2026.
  8. ↑ Jiménez Fernández, María (2018). "Una aproximación a la historia cultural de la traducción. Del mundo antiguo a la Edad Media: La Escuela de Traductores de Toledo" (PDF) (in español). UVaDOC. Retrieved January 10, 2026.
  9. ↑ Dmitri Gutas, pensamiento griego, cultura árabe: el movimiento de traducción greco-árabe en Bagdad y la antigua sociedad 'Abbasaid, Routledge, 1998
  10. ↑ M.-T. d'Alverny, "Traducciones y traductores", pp. 429–30, 451–2
  11. ↑ C. H. Haskins, Studies in Mediaeval Science, pp. 8-10
  12. ↑ Hilde de Ridder-Symoens (2003). Una historia de la universidad en Europa: Volumen 1, Universidades en la Edad Media (in español). Cambridge University Press. p. 413. ISBN 0-521-54113-1.
  13. ↑ Grant, Edward (1996). Los fundamentos de la ciencia moderna en la Edad Media: sus contextos religiosos, institucionales e intelectuales (in español). Cambridge University Press. pp. 81–82. ISBN 0-521-56762-9.
  14. ↑ Taton, Rene (1963). Historia de la ciencia: ciencia antigua y medieval (in español). New York: Libros básicos. p. 481.
  15. ↑ C. Burnett, "Programa de traducción árabe-latín en Toledo", pp. 249–51, 270.
  16. ↑ C. H. Haskins, "Renacimiento del siglo XII", p. 287. "more Arabic science passed into Western Europe at the hands of Gerard of Cremona than in any other way".
  17. ↑ D. Campbell, "La medicina árabe y su influencia en la Edad Media", p. 6.
  18. ↑ Jacquart, Danielle, La influencia de la medicina árabe en el oeste medieval (in español), p. 983 in Morelon and Rashed (1996), pp. 963–84
  19. ↑ / 2997 / "Flowers of Abu Ma'shar". World Digital Library. 1488. Retrieved 2013-07-16. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Arzobispo Raimundo de Toledo Escuela de Traductores [1130-1187]
  21. ↑ Menéndez Pidal, Gonzalo (1951). Cómo trabajar en las escuelas alfonsíes (in español). México D.F.: Nueva Revista de Filología Hispánica. pp. 363–380. ISSN 0185-0121.
  22. ↑ William PD Wightman (1953) "El crecimiento de las ideas científicas", p. 332. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 1-135-46042-6.
  23. ↑ Christoph Kann, "Michael Scotus", in Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL), vol. 5, cols. 1459–1461.
  24. ↑ https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=119142
  25. ↑ Menéndez Pelayo, Marcelino (1978). Historia de los heterodoxos españoles. España romana y visigoda. Período de la Reconquista. Erasmistas y protestantes. Volume 1. Editorial Católica. p. 439. ISBN 8422001128.
  26. ↑ M.-T. d'Alverny, Traducciones y traductores, pp. 429, 455
  27. ↑ Skinner, Gerard (2007). Los cardenales ingleses (in español). Oxford, United Kingdom: Publicaciones familiares. pp. 31–32.
  28. ↑ de Larramendi; Miguel Hernando (1997). Pensamiento y circulación de las ideas en el Mediterráneo: el papel de la traducción (in español). Universidad de Castilla La Mancha. p. 34. ISBN 84-89492-90-5.
  29. ↑ Hernando de Larramendi, Miguel (2000). La traducción de la literatura árabe contemporánea (in español). Univ de Castilla La Mancha. p. 109. ISBN 84-8427-050-5.
  30. ↑ Muñoz Sendino, José (1949). La escala de Mahoma (in español). Madrid: Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores. p. 15.
  31. ↑ Van Scoy, Herbert (1948). España en su historia; cristianos, moros y judíos (in español). Buenos Aires: Editorial Losada. p. 494.
  32. ↑ Castro y Calvo; J. M. (1947). Juan Manuel, Libro de la caza (in español). Barcelona: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas. p. 2., "Otros traslados la ley de los judíos y aún su Talmud y otra ciencia que han los jueces muy escondida, a los que llaman Cabala. Et esto fizo porque parezca manifestamente por la su ley que toda ella es figura de esta ley que los cristianos habernos; y que también están como los moros están en gran error y en el estado de perder las almas".
  33. ↑ Procter, Evelyn (1945). Las obras científicas de la corte de Alfonso X de Castilla: el rey y sus colaboradores, (in español). MLR. p. 40.
  34. ↑ James Carroll, "La espada de Constantino: la iglesia y los judíos", Boston, Houghton-Mifflin, 2002, pp. 327–28.
  35. ↑ Noah J. Efron, "Judaism and Science: A Historical Introduction" (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007).
  36. ↑ Jean Meeus & Denis Saboya, "La historia del año tropical", Revista de la Asociación Astronómica Británica, 1992, pp. 40–42
  37. ↑ Hellemans, Alexander. Bunch, Bryan (1988). Los horarios de la ciencia (in español). Simon y Schuster. p. 154. ISBN 0-671-62130-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  38. ↑ Thorndike, Lynn (1960). Una historia de magia y ciencia experimental (in español). Columbia University Press. p. 159.
  39. ↑ Sarton, George (1957). Six Wings: Hombres de ciencia en el Renacimiento (in español). Bloomington, IN: Indiana Univ. Prensa. p. 83.
  40. ↑ Gillispie, Charles C., "Diccionario de Biografía Científica". New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1970–1980, Introduction, v. 1, pp. ix-x.
  41. ↑ Sarton, George (1957). Six Wings: Hombres de ciencia en el Renacimiento (in español). Bloomington, IN: Indiana Univ. Prensa. p. 57.
  42. ↑ Taton, Rene (1963). Historia de la ciencia: ciencia antigua y medieval desde los comienzos hasta 1450 (in español). New York: Basic Books Inc. p. 499.
  43. ↑ Gillispie, Charles C., "Diccionario de Biografía Científica". New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1970–1980.
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