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Guy Fawkes

From Hispanopedia

Guy Fawkes
Born(1570-04-13)13 April 1570
York
Died31 January 1606(1606-01-31) (aged 35)
London
Guido Fawkes

Guy Fawkes (York, 13 April 1570 – London, 31 January 1606), also known as Guido Fawkes (a name he adopted while fighting alongside the Spanish army), was a member of the group of English Catholics who attempted to assassinate King James I in the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605.[1]

Fawkes was born and raised in York. He lost his father when he was eight years old, and some time later his mother married a Catholic recusant. Fawkes converted to Catholicism and left England to fight in the Eighty Years' War on the side of the Spanish Tercios against the Dutch Protestants in the Low Countries. He also traveled to Spain in search of support for a rebellion by English Catholics, but did not find it. Shortly afterward he met Thomas Wintour, with whom he returned to England.[1]

It was Wintour who introduced Fawkes to Robert Catesby, another English Catholic who was planning to assassinate King James I and restore a Catholic monarchy to the throne of England. The conspirators rented a cellar located beneath the House of Lords in London, and Fawkes was given the task of guarding the barrels of gunpowder that were placed there. Alerted by an anonymous letter, the authorities searched the Palace of Westminster in the early hours of 5 November and discovered Fawkes beside the explosives. Arrested and imprisoned, he was interrogated and tortured over the following days, after which he finally confessed. He was sentenced to death for high treason, but immediately before his public execution on 31 January, Fawkes jumped from the scaffold on which he was to be hanged and broke his neck, thereby avoiding the agony of the mutilation that awaited him.

Fawkes became the symbol of the Gunpowder Plot, whose failure has been commemorated in England every 5 November ever since on what is known as Guy Fawkes Night, during which his effigy is burned on a bonfire and fireworks are set off.[2][1]

Childhood and adolescence

Guy Fawkes was born in Stonegate, York, in 1570. He was the second of the four children of Edward Fawkes, a proctor and advocate of the ecclesiastical court of York,[3] and Edith Blake.[4][5] His parents were English Protestants, as were his paternal grandparents, while his grandmother Ellen Harrington was the daughter of a prominent merchant who became Lord Mayor of York in 1536.[6] Fawkes's maternal relatives were Catholic recusants,[7] and his cousin, Richard Cowling, became a Jesuit priest.[8] The name Guy was very uncommon in England, but it may have been more usual in York thanks to a famous judge of the city, Sir Guy Fairfax of Steeton.[9]

Church of St Michael le Belfrey, York, where Fawkes was baptized

The exact date of Fawkes's birth is not known, but it is known that he was baptized in the church of St Michael le Belfrey on 16 April 1570. Since it was then customary to baptize babies three days after their birth, he was probably born on 13 April.[8] In 1568 his mother Edith had given birth to a daughter named Anne, who died at seven weeks old. After Guy, she had two daughters: Anne in 1572 and Elizabeth in 1575. Fawkes's two sisters married in 1599 and 1594 respectively.[9][10]

In 1579, when Guy was eight years old, his father died. Several years later his mother remarried, to the Catholic Dionis Baynbrigge, from Scotton, Harrogate. Guy converted to Catholicism under the influence of Dionis's Catholic recusant family and of other families such as the Pulleyns and the Percys of Scotton.[11] His religious conversion was also influenced by the Catholic school where he studied, St Peter's in York. One of the headmasters of this school had spent twenty years in prison for his Catholic faith, and another, John Pulleyn, belonged to a notable Catholic family of Yorkshire. In the book The Pulleynes of Yorkshire (1915), the writer Catharine Pullein suggests that Fawkes's Catholic education was the responsibility of his Harrington relatives, who were known for sheltering Catholic priests, one of whom traveled with Guy to Flanders between 1592 and 1593.[12] Fawkes's classmates included the brothers John and Christopher Wright (both involved in the Gunpowder Plot), Oswald Tesimond, Edward Oldcorne and Robert Middleton, all of them Catholic priests (Middleton was executed in 1601).[13]

After leaving school, Fawkes entered the service of Anthony Browne, 1st Viscount Montagu, who dismissed him a short time later. He also worked for Anthony-Maria Browne, 2nd Viscount Montagu, who succeeded his grandfather at the age of 18.[14] At least one biographical database states that Fawkes married and had a son, but no contemporary source confirms this.[15][N 1]

Military career

In October 1591 Fawkes sold the estate in Clifton that he had inherited from his father[N 2] and set out on a journey to the continent to fight in the Eighty Years' War for the Catholic side alongside the Spanish army against the newly created United Provinces of the Netherlands and, from 1595 until the Peace of Vervins in 1598, against France. Although England was not then fighting Spain on land, the two kingdoms were still at war, and a few years earlier, in 1588, a great Spanish armada had attempted to invade England. Fawkes joined Sir William Stanley, an English Catholic and veteran commander who had raised an army in Ireland to fight in the expedition to the Low Countries of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester. Stanley had been a soldier highly regarded by Queen Elizabeth I of England, but after his surrender of Deventer to the Spanish in 1587, he and most of his troops had changed sides to serve Spanish interests. Fawkes was promoted to ensign and fought at the siege of Calais in 1596. In 1603 he was recommended for promotion to captain.[5] That same year he traveled to Spain, specifically to Valladolid,[16] since the royal court had settled there, in search of support for a Catholic rebellion in England, and he took the opportunity to adopt the Latinized form of his name, Guido. In his memorandum he described James I as "a heretic" who intended "to expel all papists from England." He also criticized Scotland and the Scottish nobles who were favorites of King James, writing that "it will not be possible for a long time to reconcile these two nations as they are now."[17] Although he was received courteously in Spain, the court of King Philip III was unwilling to offer him any support.[18]

The Gunpowder Plot

Main article: Gunpowder Plot
A contemporary engraving portraying eight of the thirteen conspirators, made by Crispijn van de Passe. Fawkes is third from the right

In 1604 Guy Fawkes joined a small group of English Catholics led by Robert Catesby who were planning to assassinate the Protestant King of England James I and enthrone in his place Princess Elizabeth, third in the line of succession.[19][20][1] Oswald Tesimond, a Jesuit priest and old school friend, described Fawkes thus: "Pleasant in manner and cheerful in character, not at all quarrelsome and loyal to his friends." Tesimond also stated that he was "a man highly skilled in the arts of war" and that he possessed a mixture of piety and professionalism with which he won the esteem of his fellow conspirators.[5] The writer Antonia Fraser describes Fawkes as "tall and powerfully built, with thick reddish-brown hair, a long moustache in the fashion of the time and a bushy beard also of a reddish tone," and as "a man of action… intelligent and with physical stamina, something surprising to his enemies."[8]

The first meeting of the five principal conspirators was held on Saturday, 20 May 1604, at the Duck and Drake, an establishment located in London's busy Strand district.[N 3] Catesby had already proposed, at an earlier meeting with Thomas Wintour and John Wright, killing the King and his entire government by blowing up "the Parliament House with gunpowder." Wintour, who initially raised objections to this plan, was eventually persuaded by Catesby to travel to the continent in search of help. Wintour met in London with Juan Fernández de Velasco y Tovar, Constable of Castile, with the exiled Welsh spy Hugh Owen[22] and with Sir William Stanley, who let him know that Catesby would receive no help from Spain. Despite this, Owen introduced him to Guy Fawkes, who had been away from England for several years and was therefore hardly known in his home country. Wintour and Fawkes were of similar age, both were soldiers, and both had already received a direct refusal from the Spanish to their requests for help. Wintour informed Fawkes of their plans to "do something in England if the peace with Spain does not help us,"[5] and so, in April 1604, the two returned to England.[21] The news that Wintour brought did not surprise Catesby, for despite the encouraging rumors coming from the Spanish authorities, he feared that they would not follow through with action.[N 4]

Guy Fawkes in an illustration by George Cruikshank for the novel Guy Fawkes by William Harrison Ainsworth (1840)

One of the conspirators, Thomas Percy, was promoted in June 1604 and thereby gained access to a house in London belonging to John Whynniard, keeper of the King's Wardrobe. Fawkes was installed as caretaker and began using the pseudonym John Johnson, servant to Percy.[24] The contemporary account of the prosecution, taken from Wintour's confession,[25] states that the conspirators attempted to dig a tunnel from Whynniard's house to the English Parliament, although this story may have been an invention of the Government, because no evidence of this tunnel was found. Fawkes himself did not admit the existence of this underground passage until his fifth interrogation, nor was he able to indicate its supposed location.[26] However, if this story is true, by December 1604 the conspirators were digging the tunnel when they heard a noise above their heads. Fawkes was sent to investigate and returned with the news that the widow of the house's former owner was clearing out a nearby cellar, located directly beneath the Parliament.[5][27]

The conspirators rented the room, which also belonged to John Whynniard. Abandoned and filthy, it was an ideal place to store the gunpowder they intended to detonate.[28] According to Fawkes, they initially bought twenty barrels of gunpowder, and on 20 July another sixteen.[29] However, on 28 July the opening of Parliament was postponed until Tuesday, 5 November because of the plague epidemic afflicting the city.[30]

Europe

In an attempt to obtain support abroad, in May 1605 Fawkes traveled to continental Europe and informed Hugh Owen of the conspirators' plan.[31] At some point during this journey his name was entered in the files of Robert Cecil, Earl of Salisbury, who employed an extensive network of spies throughout Europe. One of these spies, Captain William Turner, may have been the one who gave the warning. Although the information he passed to Salisbury made no mention of the Gunpowder Plot, on 21 April he wrote to him that Guy Fawkes was to be brought to England by Tesimond. By then Fawkes was a well-known mercenary in Flanders and could be introduced to "Mr. Catesby" and to "honorable friends of the nobility who could have arms and horses ready."[32] However, this report by Turner did not mention Fawkes's pseudonym in England, John Johnson, and it did not reach Cecil until late November, long after the discovery of the plot.[5][33]

It is not known exactly when Guy Fawkes returned to England, but it is certain that he was in London in late August 1605, when he and Wintour discovered that the gunpowder stored in the cellar had decayed. They brought in more explosive material and firewood to conceal it all.[34] Fawkes's final task in the plot was decided during the meetings held in October: he was to light the fuse and then escape across the River Thames. Simultaneously, a revolt stirred up in the Midlands by other conspirators would help capture Princess Elizabeth. After the regicide, Fawkes was to travel to the continent to explain to the Catholic powers their holy duty to kill the king and his retinue.[35]

Discovery

Discovery of the Gunpowder Plot (c. 1823), by Henry Perronet Briggs

Several of the conspirators were worried because there would be fellow Catholics in Parliament at the time of its opening.[36] On the night of 26 October a Catholic nobleman, William Parker, Baron Monteagle, received an anonymous letter warning him to stay away from Parliament because the place was going to receive a terrible blow.[37] Although they learned of the sending of this letter from one of Monteagle's servants, the conspirators decided to go ahead because "it seemed clearly a hoax."[38] Fawkes checked the cellar with the explosives on 30 October and reported that nothing had been touched.[39] However, Monteagle grew suspicious and showed the letter to King James. The Monarch ordered Sir Thomas Knyvet to carry out a search of the cellars beneath Parliament, which took place in the early hours of 5 November. Fawkes had been at his lookout post since the previous night, equipped with incendiary material and a pocket watch that Percy had given him "because he had to know how the hours were passing."[5] He was discovered and arrested as he was leaving the cellar, shortly after midnight. Inside, the authorities found the barrels of gunpowder hidden under piles of firewood and coal.[40][1]

Torture

Fawkes gave his name as John Johnson at his first interrogation before members of the King's Privy Chamber, during which he maintained a defiant attitude.[41] When asked what he was doing in possession of such a quantity of gunpowder, Fawkes replied that his intention was "to blow you Scotch beggars back to your native mountains."[42] He identified himself as a 36-year-old Catholic from Netherdale in Yorkshire and stated that his father's name was Thomas and his mother's Edith Jackson. Regarding the scars on his body, he said they were the aftereffects of the disease pleurisy. He admitted that his intention had been to blow up the House of Lords and expressed his regret at not having succeeded. His firm attitude toward the authorities earned him the admiration of King James, who said that Fawkes possessed "a Roman resolution."[43][1]

This admiration, however, did not prevent the monarch from ordering on 6 November that "John Johnson" be tortured so that he would reveal the names of the other conspirators.[44] He specified that the torture should be light at first and referred to the use of manacles, but that greater harshness should be employed if necessary with the use of the rack: "the gentler tortures are to be first used unto him, and so by degrees proceeding to the worst."[41][45] Fawkes was transferred to the Tower of London. The king drew up a list of questions for "Johnson," such as "What he is, for I can never yet hear of any man that knows him," "When and where he learned to speak French?" and "If he was a papist, who brought him up in it?"[46] The room in which Fawkes was interrogated would eventually come to be known by his name.[47]

Fawkes's signature, with the name "Guido," scrawled after his torture

Sir William Waad, Lieutenant of the Tower of London, supervised the torture and obtained Fawkes's confession.[41] He searched the prisoner and found a letter addressed to Guy Fawkes, but to Waad's surprise "Johnson" remained silent, revealing nothing about the plot or its authors.[48] On the night of 6 November the prisoner spoke with Waad, who later reported to Salisbury that "He [Johnson] told us that since he undertook this action he did every day pray to God that he might perform that which might be for the advancement of the Catholic Faith and saving his own soul." According to Waad, Fawkes was able to rest during the night even though he had warned him that he would be interrogated until "I had gotten the inmost of his thoughts and all his complices."[49] Fawkes's resistance broke at some point during the torture of the following day.[50]

The observer Sir Edward Hoby remarked that "Since Johnson's being in the Tower, he beginneth to speak English." Fawkes revealed his true name on 7 November and told his interrogators that five people were involved in the plot to kill the king. He began to reveal their names on the 8th and described the plan to enthrone Princess Elizabeth. In his third confession, on the 9th, he implicated Francis Tresham. After the Ridolfi plot of 1571, prisoners were required to dictate their confessions, copy them and sign them, if they were still able to do so.[51] Although it is not known for certain whether he was tortured on the rack, Fawkes's scrawled signature bears witness to the suffering his interrogators inflicted on him.[52]

Trial and execution

The trial of the eight captured conspirators began on Monday, 27 January 1606. Fawkes was transported in the same barge from the Tower of London to Westminster with the other seven conspirators.[53] They were held in the Star Chamber before being taken to Westminster Hall, where they were placed on a scaffold erected for the purpose. The king and his closest relatives watched in secret as the lords commissioners read out the list of charges against the prisoners. Fawkes was identified as Guido Fawkes, "otherwise called Guido Johnson." Fawkes pleaded not guilty, despite his apparent acceptance of guilt since his arrest.[54]

1606 engraving depicting Fawkes's execution, by Claes Janszoon Visscher

The verdict was never in doubt. The jury found all the defendants guilty, and the Lord Chief Justice, Sir John Popham, sentenced them for high treason.[55] The Attorney General, Sir Edward Coke, told the court that each of the condemned would be drawn by a horse to his death with his head near the ground. They were to "be put to death halfway between heaven and earth as unworthy of both." Their genitals would be cut off and burned before their eyes, after which their bowels and hearts would be removed. They would then be decapitated and dismembered so that the parts of their bodies could be publicly displayed and become "prey for the fowls of the air."[56] Fawkes's and Tresham's testimony about the Spanish treason was read aloud, as were the confessions concerning the Gunpowder Plot. The last piece of evidence presented was a conversation between Fawkes and Wintour, who had been held in adjoining cells. Both thought they were speaking in private, but their words were overheard by a Government spy. When the defendants were allowed to speak, Fawkes declared his innocence on the grounds of his ignorance of certain aspects of the indictment.[57]

On 31 January 1606, Fawkes and three other condemned men (Thomas Wintour, Ambrose Rookwood and Robert Keyes) were dragged from the Tower, tied to wattle hurdles, to the Old Palace Yard at Westminster, opposite the building they had attempted to destroy.[58][1] His fellow conspirators were hanged and quartered before him. Fawkes was the last to mount the scaffold and asked for forgiveness from the king and the State while holding his Christian crosses. Weakened by torture and helped by the executioner, Fawkes began to climb the ladder toward the noose from which he was to be hanged, but whether because he jumped from the scaffold or because the noose was incorrectly placed, he managed to avoid the agony of the last part of the execution by breaking his neck.[41][59][60] Nevertheless, his lifeless body was quartered[61] and, as was customary,[62] the parts were distributed "to the four corners of the kingdom" to be displayed as a warning to other traitors.[63]

Legacy

British children preparing for the Guy Fawkes Night celebrations (1954)
The Guy Fawkes mask from V for Vendetta is a symbol of revolution and civil disobedience.

On 5 November 1605 the authorities encouraged Londoners to celebrate the thwarting of the King's assassination by lighting bonfires, "always taking care that their displays of joy be done without any danger or disorder."[5] An Act of Parliament, which remained in force until 1859, designated every 5 November as a day of thanksgiving for "the joyful day of deliverance."[64] Although Guy Fawkes was only one of the thirteen conspirators, today he is the best known of them all.[65]

In Great Britain, 5 November has been called by various names, such as Guy Fawkes Night, Guy Fawkes Day, Plot Night[66] or Bonfire Night, the last of these names being directly related to the original celebration of 1605.[67] The bonfires were accompanied by fireworks from 1650 onward, and after 1673 the burning of an effigy, usually of the pope, became customary when the heir presumptive to the English throne, James, Duke of York, made public his conversion to Catholicism.[5] Although Fawkes was not the leader of the plot, he was used by successive Governments as a symbol of Catholic extremists, and the annual celebration formed part of the repression exercised against them during the following 200 years. Until 1797 Catholics could not vote in local elections, and until 1829 they could not vote in elections to the English Parliament.[68] Effigies of historical figures who had become targets of popular anger, such as Paul Kruger or Margaret Thatcher, have also been burned on these bonfires,[69] although in recent times the figure usually burned is that of Guy Fawkes.[64] It is usually children who make the "guy" out of old clothes, newspaper and a mask, and during the 19th century the term usually referred to an oddly dressed person. On some occasions, Guy Fawkes is called "the last man to enter Parliament with honest intentions."[70]

In the historical novel Guy Fawkes; or, The Gunpowder Treason (1841), written by William Harrison Ainsworth, Guy Fawkes is portrayed sympathetically,[71] which created a popular image of the conspirator as "an acceptable fictional character." Over time Fawkes has become "essentially an action hero" in children's books and low-quality novels such as The Boyhood Days of Guy Fawkes; or, The Conspirators of Old London, published around 1905.[72] According to the historian Lewis Call, Fawkes is today "a major icon in modern political culture," whose face has become "a potentially powerful instrument for the articulation of postmodern anarchism"[73] in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, exemplified by the famous mask covering the face of the character V in the graphic novel V for Vendetta by Alan Moore and David Lloyd and its film adaptation, in which he fights against a fictional English fascist state.[74] The mask worn by the character, whose design is based on Fawkes's facial features, was later adopted by members of the virtual community Anonymous.[75]

Notes

  1. ↑ According to the International Genealogical Index compiled by the Family History Center, Fawkes married Maria Pulleyn (b. 1569) in Scotton in 1590 and had a son, Thomas, on 6 February 1591.[12] However, this information appears to derive from a secondary source and not from the actual parish registers.[15]
  2. ↑ Although the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography states that he did so in 1592, other sources say it was in 1591. Peter Beal, author of A Dictionary of English Manuscript Terminology, 1450 to 2000, includes a signature from the sale of the property dated 14 October 1591. (pp. 198–199)
  3. ↑ John Wright, Thomas Percy and Thomas Wintour were also present.[21]
  4. ↑ Philip III of Spain signed peace with England in August 1604.[23]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 "¿Quién fue Guy Fawkes, el hombre que los ingleses queman todos los 5 de noviembre?". BBC News (in español). 5 November 2017.
  2. ↑ «Las hogueras de Guy Fawkes,» El País. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
  3. ↑ Haynes 2005, pp. 28–29
  4. ↑ "Guy Fawkes". The Gunpowder Plot Society. Archived from the original on 18 March 2010.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 Nicholls, Mark (2004). "Fawkes, Guy (bautizado 1570, muerto 1606)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (digital ed.). Oxford University Press.
  6. ↑ "Fawkes, Guy" in The Dictionary of National Biography, Leslie Stephen, ed., Oxford University Press, London (1921–1922).
  7. ↑ (in English) Ficha biográfica. BBC. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Fraser 2005, p. 84
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Sharpe 2005, p. 48
  10. ↑ Fraser 2005, p. 86 (note)
  11. ↑ Sharpe 2005, p. 49
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Herber, David (April 1998). "The Marriage of Guy Fawkes and Maria Pulleyn". The Gunpowder Plot Society Newsletter (1). The Gunpowder Plot Society. Archived from the original on 17 June 2011.
  13. ↑ Fraser 2005, pp. 84–85
  14. ↑ Fraser 2005, pp. 85–86
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Fraser 2005, p. 86
  16. ↑ El día que Guy Fawkes viajó a Valladolid para buscar el apoyo de la corona en la Conspiración de la Pólvora, El Norte de Castilla (04/11/2019)
  17. ↑ Fraser 2005, p. 89
  18. ↑ Fraser 2005, pp. 87–90
  19. ↑ Northcote Parkinson 1976, p. 46
  20. ↑ Fraser 2005, pp. 140–142
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Fraser 2005, pp. 117–119
  22. ↑ Fraser 2005, p. 87
  23. ↑ Nicholls, Mark (2004). "Oxford Dictionary of National Biography". Catesby, Robert (b. in or after 1572, d. 1605). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/4883.
  24. ↑ Fraser 2005, pp. 122–123
  25. ↑ Nicholls, Mark (2004). "Oxford Dictionary of National Biography". Winter, Thomas (c. 1571–1606). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/29767. (subscription, Wikipedia Library access or UK public library membership required)
  26. ↑ Fraser 2005, pp. 133–134
  27. ↑ Haynes 2005, pp. 55–59
  28. ↑ Fraser 2005, pp. 144–145
  29. ↑ Fraser 2005, pp. 146–147
  30. ↑ Fraser 2005, pp. 159–162
  31. ↑ Bengsten 2005, p. 50
  32. ↑ Fraser 2005, p. 150
  33. ↑ Fraser 2005, pp. 148–150
  34. ↑ Fraser 2005, p. 170
  35. ↑ Fraser 2005, pp. 178–179
  36. ↑ Northcote Parkinson 1976, pp. 62–63
  37. ↑ Northcote Parkinson 1976, pp. 68–69
  38. ↑ Northcote Parkinson 1976, p. 72
  39. ↑ Fraser 2005, p. 189
  40. ↑ Northcote Parkinson 1976, p. 73
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 Northcote Parkinson 1976, pp. 91–92
  42. ↑ Cobbett 1857, p. 229.
  43. ↑ Fraser 2005, pp. 208–209
  44. ↑ Fraser 2005, p. 211
  45. ↑ Fraser 2005, p. 215
  46. ↑ Fraser 2005, p. 212
  47. ↑ Younghusband 2008, p. 46
  48. ↑ Bengsten 2005, p. 58
  49. ↑ Bengsten 2005, p. 59
  50. ↑ Fraser 2005, pp. 216–217
  51. ↑ Bengsten 2005, p. 60
  52. ↑ Fraser 2005, pp. 215–216, 228–229
  53. ↑ Fraser 2005, p. 263
  54. ↑ Fraser 2005, pp. 263–266
  55. ↑ Fraser 2005, p. 273
  56. ↑ Fraser 2005, pp. 266–269
  57. ↑ Fraser 2005, pp. 269–271
  58. ↑ Haynes 2005, pp. 115–116
  59. ↑ Fraser 2005, p. 283
  60. ↑ Sharpe 2005, pp. 76–77
  61. ↑ Allen 1973, p. 37
  62. ↑ Thompson 2008, p. 102
  63. ↑ "Guy Fawkes". York Museums Trust. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 House of Commons Information Office (September 2006). "The Gunpowder Plot" (PDF). parliament.uk en web.archive.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2005. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  65. ↑ Fraser 2005, p. 349
  66. ↑ Fox & Woolf 2002, p. 269
  67. ↑ Fraser 2005, pp. 351–352
  68. ↑ Haynes, Alan (in English) «The Enduring Memory of the Gunpowder Plot.» BBC. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
  69. ↑ Fraser 2005, p. 356
  70. ↑ Sharpe 2005, p. 6
  71. ↑ Harrison Ainsworth, William (1841). Guy Fawkes; or, The Gunpowder Treason. Nottingham Society.
  72. ↑ Sharpe 2005, p. 128
  73. ↑ Call, Lewis (1 July 2008). "A Is for Anarchy, V Is for Vendetta: Images of Guy Fawkes and the Creation of Postmodern Anarchism". HighBeam Research. Archived from the original on 2 June 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
  74. ↑ Call, Lewis (July 2008). "A is for Anarchy, V is for Vendetta: Images of Guy Fawkes and the Creation of Postmodern Anarchism". Anarchist Studies. Archived from the original on 2 June 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
  75. ↑ Nickelsburg, Monica (3 July 2013). "A brief history of the Guy Fawkes mask". The Week. Retrieved 22 October 2015.

Bibliography

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